Merge branch 'overlayfs-linus' of git://git.kernel.org/pub/scm/linux/kernel/git/mszeredi/vfs

Pull overlayfs updates from Miklos Szeredi:
 "This work from Amir adds NFS export capability to overlayfs. NFS
  exporting an overlay filesystem is a challange because we want to keep
  track of any copy-up of a file or directory between encoding the file
  handle and decoding it.

  This is achieved by indexing copied up objects by lower layer file
  handle. The index is already used for hard links, this patchset
  extends the use to NFS file handle decoding"

* 'overlayfs-linus' of git://git.kernel.org/pub/scm/linux/kernel/git/mszeredi/vfs: (51 commits)
  ovl: check ERR_PTR() return value from ovl_encode_fh()
  ovl: fix regression in fsnotify of overlay merge dir
  ovl: wire up NFS export operations
  ovl: lookup indexed ancestor of lower dir
  ovl: lookup connected ancestor of dir in inode cache
  ovl: hash non-indexed dir by upper inode for NFS export
  ovl: decode pure lower dir file handles
  ovl: decode indexed dir file handles
  ovl: decode lower file handles of unlinked but open files
  ovl: decode indexed non-dir file handles
  ovl: decode lower non-dir file handles
  ovl: encode lower file handles
  ovl: copy up before encoding non-connectable dir file handle
  ovl: encode non-indexed upper file handles
  ovl: decode connected upper dir file handles
  ovl: decode pure upper file handles
  ovl: encode pure upper file handles
  ovl: document NFS export
  vfs: factor out helpers d_instantiate_anon() and d_alloc_anon()
  ovl: store 'has_upper' and 'opaque' as bit flags
  ...

15 files changed, 1905 insertions, 409 deletions

diff --git a/Documentation/filesystems/overlayfs.txt b/Documentation/filesystems/overlayfs.txt
index e6a5f491..6ea1e64 100644
--- a/Documentation/filesystems/overlayfs.txt
+++ b/Documentation/filesystems/overlayfs.txt
@@ -190,6 +190,20 @@ Mount options:
     Redirects are not created and not followed (equivalent to "redirect_dir=off"
     if "redirect_always_follow" feature is not enabled).
 
+When the NFS export feature is enabled, every copied up directory is
+indexed by the file handle of the lower inode and a file handle of the
+upper directory is stored in a "trusted.overlay.upper" extended attribute
+on the index entry.  On lookup of a merged directory, if the upper
+directory does not match the file handle stores in the index, that is an
+indication that multiple upper directories may be redirected to the same
+lower directory.  In that case, lookup returns an error and warns about
+a possible inconsistency.
+
+Because lower layer redirects cannot be verified with the index, enabling
+NFS export support on an overlay filesystem with no upper layer requires
+turning off redirect follow (e.g. "redirect_dir=nofollow").
+
+
 Non-directories
 ---------------
 
@@ -281,9 +295,9 @@ filesystem, so both st_dev and st_ino of the file may change.
 
 Any open files referring to this inode will access the old data.
 
-If a file with multiple hard links is copied up, then this will
-"break" the link.  Changes will not be propagated to other names
-referring to the same inode.
+Unless "inode index" feature is enabled, if a file with multiple hard
+links is copied up, then this will "break" the link.  Changes will not be
+propagated to other names referring to the same inode.
 
 Unless "redirect_dir" feature is enabled, rename(2) on a lower or merged
 directory will fail with EXDEV.
@@ -299,6 +313,92 @@ filesystem are not allowed.  If the underlying filesystem is changed,
 the behavior of the overlay is undefined, though it will not result in
 a crash or deadlock.
 
+When the overlay NFS export feature is enabled, overlay filesystems
+behavior on offline changes of the underlying lower layer is different
+than the behavior when NFS export is disabled.
+
+On every copy_up, an NFS file handle of the lower inode, along with the
+UUID of the lower filesystem, are encoded and stored in an extended
+attribute "trusted.overlay.origin" on the upper inode.
+
+When the NFS export feature is enabled, a lookup of a merged directory,
+that found a lower directory at the lookup path or at the path pointed
+to by the "trusted.overlay.redirect" extended attribute, will verify
+that the found lower directory file handle and lower filesystem UUID
+match the origin file handle that was stored at copy_up time.  If a
+found lower directory does not match the stored origin, that directory
+will not be merged with the upper directory.
+
+
+
+NFS export
+----------
+
+When the underlying filesystems supports NFS export and the "nfs_export"
+feature is enabled, an overlay filesystem may be exported to NFS.
+
+With the "nfs_export" feature, on copy_up of any lower object, an index
+entry is created under the index directory.  The index entry name is the
+hexadecimal representation of the copy up origin file handle.  For a
+non-directory object, the index entry is a hard link to the upper inode.
+For a directory object, the index entry has an extended attribute
+"trusted.overlay.upper" with an encoded file handle of the upper
+directory inode.
+
+When encoding a file handle from an overlay filesystem object, the
+following rules apply:
+
+1. For a non-upper object, encode a lower file handle from lower inode
+2. For an indexed object, encode a lower file handle from copy_up origin
+3. For a pure-upper object and for an existing non-indexed upper object,
+   encode an upper file handle from upper inode
+
+The encoded overlay file handle includes:
+ - Header including path type information (e.g. lower/upper)
+ - UUID of the underlying filesystem
+ - Underlying filesystem encoding of underlying inode
+
+This encoding format is identical to the encoding format file handles that
+are stored in extended attribute "trusted.overlay.origin".
+
+When decoding an overlay file handle, the following steps are followed:
+
+1. Find underlying layer by UUID and path type information.
+2. Decode the underlying filesystem file handle to underlying dentry.
+3. For a lower file handle, lookup the handle in index directory by name.
+4. If a whiteout is found in index, return ESTALE. This represents an
+   overlay object that was deleted after its file handle was encoded.
+5. For a non-directory, instantiate a disconnected overlay dentry from the
+   decoded underlying dentry, the path type and index inode, if found.
+6. For a directory, use the connected underlying decoded dentry, path type
+   and index, to lookup a connected overlay dentry.
+
+Decoding a non-directory file handle may return a disconnected dentry.
+copy_up of that disconnected dentry will create an upper index entry with
+no upper alias.
+
+When overlay filesystem has multiple lower layers, a middle layer
+directory may have a "redirect" to lower directory.  Because middle layer
+"redirects" are not indexed, a lower file handle that was encoded from the
+"redirect" origin directory, cannot be used to find the middle or upper
+layer directory.  Similarly, a lower file handle that was encoded from a
+descendant of the "redirect" origin directory, cannot be used to
+reconstruct a connected overlay path.  To mitigate the cases of
+directories that cannot be decoded from a lower file handle, these
+directories are copied up on encode and encoded as an upper file handle.
+On an overlay filesystem with no upper layer this mitigation cannot be
+used NFS export in this setup requires turning off redirect follow (e.g.
+"redirect_dir=nofollow").
+
+The overlay filesystem does not support non-directory connectable file
+handles, so exporting with the 'subtree_check' exportfs configuration will
+cause failures to lookup files over NFS.
+
+When the NFS export feature is enabled, all directory index entries are
+verified on mount time to check that upper file handles are not stale.
+This verification may cause significant overhead in some cases.
+
+
 Testsuite
 ---------
 
diff --git a/fs/dcache.c b/fs/dcache.c
index cca2b37..7c38f39 100644
--- a/fs/dcache.c
+++ b/fs/dcache.c
@@ -1698,9 +1698,15 @@ struct dentry *d_alloc(struct dentry * parent, const struct qstr *name)
 }
 EXPORT_SYMBOL(d_alloc);
 
+struct dentry *d_alloc_anon(struct super_block *sb)
+{
+	return __d_alloc(sb, NULL);
+}
+EXPORT_SYMBOL(d_alloc_anon);
+
 struct dentry *d_alloc_cursor(struct dentry * parent)
 {
-	struct dentry *dentry = __d_alloc(parent->d_sb, NULL);
+	struct dentry *dentry = d_alloc_anon(parent->d_sb);
 	if (dentry) {
 		dentry->d_flags |= DCACHE_RCUACCESS | DCACHE_DENTRY_CURSOR;
 		dentry->d_parent = dget(parent);
@@ -1886,7 +1892,7 @@ struct dentry *d_make_root(struct inode *root_inode)
 	struct dentry *res = NULL;
 
 	if (root_inode) {
-		res = __d_alloc(root_inode->i_sb, NULL);
+		res = d_alloc_anon(root_inode->i_sb);
 		if (res)
 			d_instantiate(res, root_inode);
 		else
@@ -1925,33 +1931,19 @@ struct dentry *d_find_any_alias(struct inode *inode)
 }
 EXPORT_SYMBOL(d_find_any_alias);
 
-static struct dentry *__d_obtain_alias(struct inode *inode, int disconnected)
+static struct dentry *__d_instantiate_anon(struct dentry *dentry,
+					   struct inode *inode,
+					   bool disconnected)
 {
-	struct dentry *tmp;
 	struct dentry *res;
 	unsigned add_flags;
 
-	if (!inode)
-		return ERR_PTR(-ESTALE);
-	if (IS_ERR(inode))
-		return ERR_CAST(inode);
-
-	res = d_find_any_alias(inode);
-	if (res)
-		goto out_iput;
-
-	tmp = __d_alloc(inode->i_sb, NULL);
-	if (!tmp) {
-		res = ERR_PTR(-ENOMEM);
-		goto out_iput;
-	}
-
-	security_d_instantiate(tmp, inode);
+	security_d_instantiate(dentry, inode);
 	spin_lock(&inode->i_lock);
 	res = __d_find_any_alias(inode);
 	if (res) {
 		spin_unlock(&inode->i_lock);
-		dput(tmp);
+		dput(dentry);
 		goto out_iput;
 	}
 
@@ -1961,24 +1953,57 @@ static struct dentry *__d_obtain_alias(struct inode *inode, int disconnected)
 	if (disconnected)
 		add_flags |= DCACHE_DISCONNECTED;
 
-	spin_lock(&tmp->d_lock);
-	__d_set_inode_and_type(tmp, inode, add_flags);
-	hlist_add_head(&tmp->d_u.d_alias, &inode->i_dentry);
+	spin_lock(&dentry->d_lock);
+	__d_set_inode_and_type(dentry, inode, add_flags);
+	hlist_add_head(&dentry->d_u.d_alias, &inode->i_dentry);
 	if (!disconnected) {
-		hlist_bl_lock(&tmp->d_sb->s_roots);
-		hlist_bl_add_head(&tmp->d_hash, &tmp->d_sb->s_roots);
-		hlist_bl_unlock(&tmp->d_sb->s_roots);
+		hlist_bl_lock(&dentry->d_sb->s_roots);
+		hlist_bl_add_head(&dentry->d_hash, &dentry->d_sb->s_roots);
+		hlist_bl_unlock(&dentry->d_sb->s_roots);
 	}
-	spin_unlock(&tmp->d_lock);
+	spin_unlock(&dentry->d_lock);
 	spin_unlock(&inode->i_lock);
 
-	return tmp;
+	return dentry;
 
  out_iput:
 	iput(inode);
 	return res;
 }
 
+struct dentry *d_instantiate_anon(struct dentry *dentry, struct inode *inode)
+{
+	return __d_instantiate_anon(dentry, inode, true);
+}
+EXPORT_SYMBOL(d_instantiate_anon);
+
+static struct dentry *__d_obtain_alias(struct inode *inode, bool disconnected)
+{
+	struct dentry *tmp;
+	struct dentry *res;
+
+	if (!inode)
+		return ERR_PTR(-ESTALE);
+	if (IS_ERR(inode))
+		return ERR_CAST(inode);
+
+	res = d_find_any_alias(inode);
+	if (res)
+		goto out_iput;
+
+	tmp = d_alloc_anon(inode->i_sb);
+	if (!tmp) {
+		res = ERR_PTR(-ENOMEM);
+		goto out_iput;
+	}
+
+	return __d_instantiate_anon(tmp, inode, disconnected);
+
+out_iput:
+	iput(inode);
+	return res;
+}
+
 /**
  * d_obtain_alias - find or allocate a DISCONNECTED dentry for a given inode
  * @inode: inode to allocate the dentry for
@@ -1999,7 +2024,7 @@ static struct dentry *__d_obtain_alias(struct inode *inode, int disconnected)
  */
 struct dentry *d_obtain_alias(struct inode *inode)
 {
-	return __d_obtain_alias(inode, 1);
+	return __d_obtain_alias(inode, true);
 }
 EXPORT_SYMBOL(d_obtain_alias);
 
@@ -2020,7 +2045,7 @@ EXPORT_SYMBOL(d_obtain_alias);
  */
 struct dentry *d_obtain_root(struct inode *inode)
 {
-	return __d_obtain_alias(inode, 0);
+	return __d_obtain_alias(inode, false);
 }
 EXPORT_SYMBOL(d_obtain_root);
 
@@ -3527,6 +3552,7 @@ bool is_subdir(struct dentry *new_dentry, struct dentry *old_dentry)
 
 	return result;
 }
+EXPORT_SYMBOL(is_subdir);
 
 static enum d_walk_ret d_genocide_kill(void *data, struct dentry *dentry)
 {
diff --git a/fs/overlayfs/Kconfig b/fs/overlayfs/Kconfig
index 5ac4154..406e72d 100644
--- a/fs/overlayfs/Kconfig
+++ b/fs/overlayfs/Kconfig
@@ -47,9 +47,28 @@ config OVERLAY_FS_INDEX
 	  The inodes index feature prevents breaking of lower hardlinks on copy
 	  up.
 
-	  Note, that the inodes index feature is read-only backward compatible.
-	  That is, mounting an overlay which has an index dir on a kernel that
-	  doesn't support this feature read-only, will not have any negative
-	  outcomes.  However, mounting the same overlay with an old kernel
-	  read-write and then mounting it again with a new kernel, will have
-	  unexpected results.
+	  Note, that the inodes index feature is not backward compatible.
+	  That is, mounting an overlay which has an inodes index on a kernel
+	  that doesn't support this feature will have unexpected results.
+
+config OVERLAY_FS_NFS_EXPORT
+	bool "Overlayfs: turn on NFS export feature by default"
+	depends on OVERLAY_FS
+	depends on OVERLAY_FS_INDEX
+	help
+	  If this config option is enabled then overlay filesystems will use
+	  the inodes index dir to decode overlay NFS file handles by default.
+	  In this case, it is still possible to turn off NFS export support
+	  globally with the "nfs_export=off" module option or on a filesystem
+	  instance basis with the "nfs_export=off" mount option.
+
+	  The NFS export feature creates an index on copy up of every file and
+	  directory.  This full index is used to detect overlay filesystems
+	  inconsistencies on lookup, like redirect from multiple upper dirs to
+	  the same lower dir.  The full index may incur some overhead on mount
+	  time, especially when verifying that directory file handles are not
+	  stale.
+
+	  Note, that the NFS export feature is not backward compatible.
+	  That is, mounting an overlay which has a full index on a kernel
+	  that doesn't support this feature will have unexpected results.
diff --git a/fs/overlayfs/Makefile b/fs/overlayfs/Makefile
index 99373bb..3080234 100644
--- a/fs/overlayfs/Makefile
+++ b/fs/overlayfs/Makefile
@@ -4,4 +4,5 @@
 
 obj-$(CONFIG_OVERLAY_FS) += overlay.o
 
-overlay-objs := super.o namei.o util.o inode.o dir.o readdir.o copy_up.o
+overlay-objs := super.o namei.o util.o inode.o dir.o readdir.o copy_up.o \
+		export.o
diff --git a/fs/overlayfs/copy_up.c b/fs/overlayfs/copy_up.c
index eb3b8d3..d855f50 100644
--- a/fs/overlayfs/copy_up.c
+++ b/fs/overlayfs/copy_up.c
@@ -232,13 +232,13 @@ int ovl_set_attr(struct dentry *upperdentry, struct kstat *stat)
 	return err;
 }
 
-struct ovl_fh *ovl_encode_fh(struct dentry *lower, bool is_upper)
+struct ovl_fh *ovl_encode_fh(struct dentry *real, bool is_upper)
 {
 	struct ovl_fh *fh;
 	int fh_type, fh_len, dwords;
 	void *buf;
 	int buflen = MAX_HANDLE_SZ;
-	uuid_t *uuid = &lower->d_sb->s_uuid;
+	uuid_t *uuid = &real->d_sb->s_uuid;
 
 	buf = kmalloc(buflen, GFP_KERNEL);
 	if (!buf)
@@ -250,7 +250,7 @@ struct ovl_fh *ovl_encode_fh(struct dentry *lower, bool is_upper)
 	 * the price or reconnecting the dentry.
 	 */
 	dwords = buflen >> 2;
-	fh_type = exportfs_encode_fh(lower, buf, &dwords, 0);
+	fh_type = exportfs_encode_fh(real, buf, &dwords, 0);
 	buflen = (dwords << 2);
 
 	fh = ERR_PTR(-EIO);
@@ -288,8 +288,8 @@ out:
 	return fh;
 }
 
-static int ovl_set_origin(struct dentry *dentry, struct dentry *lower,
-			  struct dentry *upper)
+int ovl_set_origin(struct dentry *dentry, struct dentry *lower,
+		   struct dentry *upper)
 {
 	const struct ovl_fh *fh = NULL;
 	int err;
@@ -315,6 +315,94 @@ static int ovl_set_origin(struct dentry *dentry, struct dentry *lower,
 	return err;
 }
 
+/* Store file handle of @upper dir in @index dir entry */
+static int ovl_set_upper_fh(struct dentry *upper, struct dentry *index)
+{
+	const struct ovl_fh *fh;
+	int err;
+
+	fh = ovl_encode_fh(upper, true);
+	if (IS_ERR(fh))
+		return PTR_ERR(fh);
+
+	err = ovl_do_setxattr(index, OVL_XATTR_UPPER, fh, fh->len, 0);
+
+	kfree(fh);
+	return err;
+}
+
+/*
+ * Create and install index entry.
+ *
+ * Caller must hold i_mutex on indexdir.
+ */
+static int ovl_create_index(struct dentry *dentry, struct dentry *origin,
+			    struct dentry *upper)
+{
+	struct dentry *indexdir = ovl_indexdir(dentry->d_sb);
+	struct inode *dir = d_inode(indexdir);
+	struct dentry *index = NULL;
+	struct dentry *temp = NULL;
+	struct qstr name = { };
+	int err;
+
+	/*
+	 * For now this is only used for creating index entry for directories,
+	 * because non-dir are copied up directly to index and then hardlinked
+	 * to upper dir.
+	 *
+	 * TODO: implement create index for non-dir, so we can call it when
+	 * encoding file handle for non-dir in case index does not exist.
+	 */
+	if (WARN_ON(!d_is_dir(dentry)))
+		return -EIO;
+
+	/* Directory not expected to be indexed before copy up */
+	if (WARN_ON(ovl_test_flag(OVL_INDEX, d_inode(dentry))))
+		return -EIO;
+
+	err = ovl_get_index_name(origin, &name);
+	if (err)
+		return err;
+
+	temp = ovl_lookup_temp(indexdir);
+	if (IS_ERR(temp))
+		goto temp_err;
+
+	err = ovl_do_mkdir(dir, temp, S_IFDIR, true);
+	if (err)
+		goto out;
+
+	err = ovl_set_upper_fh(upper, temp);
+	if (err)
+		goto out_cleanup;
+
+	index = lookup_one_len(name.name, indexdir, name.len);
+	if (IS_ERR(index)) {
+		err = PTR_ERR(index);
+	} else {
+		err = ovl_do_rename(dir, temp, dir, index, 0);
+		dput(index);
+	}
+
+	if (err)
+		goto out_cleanup;
+
+out:
+	dput(temp);
+	kfree(name.name);
+	return err;
+
+temp_err:
+	err = PTR_ERR(temp);
+	temp = NULL;
+	goto out;
+
+out_cleanup:
+	ovl_cleanup(dir, temp);
+	goto out;
+}
+
 struct ovl_copy_up_ctx {
 	struct dentry *parent;
 	struct dentry *dentry;
@@ -327,6 +415,7 @@ struct ovl_copy_up_ctx {
 	struct dentry *workdir;
 	bool tmpfile;
 	bool origin;
+	bool indexed;
 };
 
 static int ovl_link_up(struct ovl_copy_up_ctx *c)
@@ -361,7 +450,10 @@ static int ovl_link_up(struct ovl_copy_up_ctx *c)
 		}
 	}
 	inode_unlock(udir);
-	ovl_set_nlink_upper(c->dentry);
+	if (err)
+		return err;
+
+	err = ovl_set_nlink_upper(c->dentry);
 
 	return err;
 }
@@ -498,6 +590,12 @@ static int ovl_copy_up_locked(struct ovl_copy_up_ctx *c)
 	if (err)
 		goto out_cleanup;
 
+	if (S_ISDIR(c->stat.mode) && c->indexed) {
+		err = ovl_create_index(c->dentry, c->lowerpath.dentry, temp);
+		if (err)
+			goto out_cleanup;
+	}
+
 	if (c->tmpfile) {
 		inode_lock_nested(udir, I_MUTEX_PARENT);
 		err = ovl_install_temp(c, temp, &newdentry);
@@ -536,20 +634,33 @@ static int ovl_do_copy_up(struct ovl_copy_up_ctx *c)
 {
 	int err;
 	struct ovl_fs *ofs = c->dentry->d_sb->s_fs_info;
-	bool indexed = false;
+	bool to_index = false;
 
-	if (ovl_indexdir(c->dentry->d_sb) && !S_ISDIR(c->stat.mode) &&
-	    c->stat.nlink > 1)
-		indexed = true;
+	/*
+	 * Indexed non-dir is copied up directly to the index entry and then
+	 * hardlinked to upper dir. Indexed dir is copied up to indexdir,
+	 * then index entry is created and then copied up dir installed.
+	 * Copying dir up to indexdir instead of workdir simplifies locking.
+	 */
+	if (ovl_need_index(c->dentry)) {
+		c->indexed = true;
+		if (S_ISDIR(c->stat.mode))
+			c->workdir = ovl_indexdir(c->dentry->d_sb);
+		else
+			to_index = true;
+	}
 
-	if (S_ISDIR(c->stat.mode) || c->stat.nlink == 1 || indexed)
+	if (S_ISDIR(c->stat.mode) || c->stat.nlink == 1 || to_index)
 		c->origin = true;
 
-	if (indexed) {
+	if (to_index) {
 		c->destdir = ovl_indexdir(c->dentry->d_sb);
 		err = ovl_get_index_name(c->lowerpath.dentry, &c->destname);
 		if (err)
 			return err;
+	} else if (WARN_ON(!c->parent)) {
+		/* Disconnected dentry must be copied up to index dir */
+		return -EIO;
 	} else {
 		/*
 		 * Mark parent "impure" because it may now contain non-pure
@@ -572,11 +683,17 @@ static int ovl_do_copy_up(struct ovl_copy_up_ctx *c)
 		}
 	}
 
-	if (indexed) {
-		if (!err)
-			ovl_set_flag(OVL_INDEX, d_inode(c->dentry));
-		kfree(c->destname.name);
-	} else if (!err) {
+
+	if (err)
+		goto out;
+
+	if (c->indexed)
+		ovl_set_flag(OVL_INDEX, d_inode(c->dentry));
+
+	if (to_index) {
+		/* Initialize nlink for copy up of disconnected dentry */
+		err = ovl_set_nlink_upper(c->dentry);
+	} else {
 		struct inode *udir = d_inode(c->destdir);
 
 		/* Restore timestamps on parent (best effort) */
@@ -587,6 +704,9 @@ static int ovl_do_copy_up(struct ovl_copy_up_ctx *c)
 		ovl_dentry_set_upper_alias(c->dentry);
 	}
 
+out:
+	if (to_index)
+		kfree(c->destname.name);
 	return err;
 }
 
@@ -611,14 +731,17 @@ static int ovl_copy_up_one(struct dentry *parent, struct dentry *dentry,
 	if (err)
 		return err;
 
-	ovl_path_upper(parent, &parentpath);
-	ctx.destdir = parentpath.dentry;
-	ctx.destname = dentry->d_name;
+	if (parent) {
+		ovl_path_upper(parent, &parentpath);
+		ctx.destdir = parentpath.dentry;
+		ctx.destname = dentry->d_name;
 
-	err = vfs_getattr(&parentpath, &ctx.pstat,
-			  STATX_ATIME | STATX_MTIME, AT_STATX_SYNC_AS_STAT);
-	if (err)
-		return err;
+		err = vfs_getattr(&parentpath, &ctx.pstat,
+				  STATX_ATIME | STATX_MTIME,
+				  AT_STATX_SYNC_AS_STAT);
+		if (err)
+			return err;
+	}
 
 	/* maybe truncate regular file. this has no effect on dirs */
 	if (flags & O_TRUNC)
@@ -639,7 +762,7 @@ static int ovl_copy_up_one(struct dentry *parent, struct dentry *dentry,
 	} else {
 		if (!ovl_dentry_upper(dentry))
 			err = ovl_do_copy_up(&ctx);
-		if (!err && !ovl_dentry_has_upper_alias(dentry))
+		if (!err && parent && !ovl_dentry_has_upper_alias(dentry))
 			err = ovl_link_up(&ctx);
 		ovl_copy_up_end(dentry);
 	}
@@ -652,10 +775,19 @@ int ovl_copy_up_flags(struct dentry *dentry, int flags)
 {
 	int err = 0;
 	const struct cred *old_cred = ovl_override_creds(dentry->d_sb);
+	bool disconnected = (dentry->d_flags & DCACHE_DISCONNECTED);
+
+	/*
+	 * With NFS export, copy up can get called for a disconnected non-dir.
+	 * In this case, we will copy up lower inode to index dir without
+	 * linking it to upper dir.
+	 */
+	if (WARN_ON(disconnected && d_is_dir(dentry)))
+		return -EIO;
 
 	while (!err) {
 		struct dentry *next;
-		struct dentry *parent;
+		struct dentry *parent = NULL;
 
 		/*
 		 * Check if copy-up has happened as well as for upper alias (in
@@ -671,12 +803,12 @@ int ovl_copy_up_flags(struct dentry *dentry, int flags)
 		 *      with rename.
 		 */
 		if (ovl_dentry_upper(dentry) &&
-		    ovl_dentry_has_upper_alias(dentry))
+		    (ovl_dentry_has_upper_alias(dentry) || disconnected))
 			break;
 
 		next = dget(dentry);
 		/* find the topmost dentry not yet copied up */
-		for (;;) {
+		for (; !disconnected;) {
 			parent = dget_parent(next);
 
 			if (ovl_dentry_upper(parent))
diff --git a/fs/overlayfs/dir.c b/fs/overlayfs/dir.c
index f9788bc..839709c 100644
--- a/fs/overlayfs/dir.c
+++ b/fs/overlayfs/dir.c
@@ -63,8 +63,7 @@ struct dentry *ovl_lookup_temp(struct dentry *workdir)
 }
 
 /* caller holds i_mutex on workdir */
-static struct dentry *ovl_whiteout(struct dentry *workdir,
-				   struct dentry *dentry)
+static struct dentry *ovl_whiteout(struct dentry *workdir)
 {
 	int err;
 	struct dentry *whiteout;
@@ -83,6 +82,38 @@ static struct dentry *ovl_whiteout(struct dentry *workdir,
 	return whiteout;
 }
 
+/* Caller must hold i_mutex on both workdir and dir */
+int ovl_cleanup_and_whiteout(struct dentry *workdir, struct inode *dir,
+			     struct dentry *dentry)
+{
+	struct inode *wdir = workdir->d_inode;
+	struct dentry *whiteout;
+	int err;
+	int flags = 0;
+
+	whiteout = ovl_whiteout(workdir);
+	err = PTR_ERR(whiteout);
+	if (IS_ERR(whiteout))
+		return err;
+
+	if (d_is_dir(dentry))
+		flags = RENAME_EXCHANGE;
+
+	err = ovl_do_rename(wdir, whiteout, dir, dentry, flags);
+	if (err)
+		goto kill_whiteout;
+	if (flags)
+		ovl_cleanup(wdir, dentry);
+
+out:
+	dput(whiteout);
+	return err;
+
+kill_whiteout:
+	ovl_cleanup(wdir, whiteout);
+	goto out;
+}
+
 int ovl_create_real(struct inode *dir, struct dentry *newdentry,
 		    struct cattr *attr, struct dentry *hardlink, bool debug)
 {
@@ -181,11 +212,6 @@ static bool ovl_type_origin(struct dentry *dentry)
 	return OVL_TYPE_ORIGIN(ovl_path_type(dentry));
 }
 
-static bool ovl_may_have_whiteouts(struct dentry *dentry)
-{
-	return ovl_test_flag(OVL_WHITEOUTS, d_inode(dentry));
-}
-
 static int ovl_create_upper(struct dentry *dentry, struct inode *inode,
 			    struct cattr *attr, struct dentry *hardlink)
 {
@@ -301,37 +327,6 @@ out:
 	return ERR_PTR(err);
 }
 
-static struct dentry *ovl_check_empty_and_clear(struct dentry *dentry)
-{
-	int err;
-	struct dentry *ret = NULL;
-	LIST_HEAD(list);
-
-	err = ovl_check_empty_dir(dentry, &list);
-	if (err) {
-		ret = ERR_PTR(err);
-		goto out_free;
-	}
-
-	/*
-	 * When removing an empty opaque directory, then it makes no sense to
-	 * replace it with an exact replica of itself.
-	 *
-	 * If upperdentry has whiteouts, clear them.
-	 *
-	 * Can race with copy-up, since we don't hold the upperdir mutex.
-	 * Doesn't matter, since copy-up can't create a non-empty directory
-	 * from an empty one.
-	 */
-	if (!list_empty(&list))
-		ret = ovl_clear_empty(dentry, &list);
-
-out_free:
-	ovl_cache_free(&list);
-
-	return ret;
-}
-
 static int ovl_set_upper_acl(struct dentry *upperdentry, const char *name,
 			     const struct posix_acl *acl)
 {
@@ -623,23 +618,20 @@ static bool ovl_matches_upper(struct dentry *dentry, struct dentry *upper)
 	return d_inode(ovl_dentry_upper(dentry)) == d_inode(upper);
 }
 
-static int ovl_remove_and_whiteout(struct dentry *dentry, bool is_dir)
+static int ovl_remove_and_whiteout(struct dentry *dentry,
+				   struct list_head *list)
 {
 	struct dentry *workdir = ovl_workdir(dentry);
-	struct inode *wdir = workdir->d_inode;
 	struct dentry *upperdir = ovl_dentry_upper(dentry->d_parent);
-	struct inode *udir = upperdir->d_inode;
-	struct dentry *whiteout;
 	struct dentry *upper;
 	struct dentry *opaquedir = NULL;
 	int err;
-	int flags = 0;
 
 	if (WARN_ON(!workdir))
 		return -EROFS;
 
-	if (is_dir) {
-		opaquedir = ovl_check_empty_and_clear(dentry);
+	if (!list_empty(list)) {
+		opaquedir = ovl_clear_empty(dentry, list);
 		err = PTR_ERR(opaquedir);
 		if (IS_ERR(opaquedir))
 			goto out;
@@ -662,24 +654,13 @@ static int ovl_remove_and_whiteout(struct dentry *dentry, bool is_dir)
 		goto out_dput_upper;
 	}
 
-	whiteout = ovl_whiteout(workdir, dentry);
-	err = PTR_ERR(whiteout);
-	if (IS_ERR(whiteout))
-		goto out_dput_upper;
-
-	if (d_is_dir(upper))
-		flags = RENAME_EXCHANGE;
-
-	err = ovl_do_rename(wdir, whiteout, udir, upper, flags);
+	err = ovl_cleanup_and_whiteout(workdir, d_inode(upperdir), upper);
 	if (err)
-		goto kill_whiteout;
-	if (flags)
-		ovl_cleanup(wdir, upper);
+		goto out_d_drop;
 
 	ovl_dentry_version_inc(dentry->d_parent, true);
 out_d_drop:
 	d_drop(dentry);
-	dput(whiteout);
 out_dput_upper:
 	dput(upper);
 out_unlock:
@@ -688,13 +669,10 @@ out_dput:
 	dput(opaquedir);
 out:
 	return err;
-
-kill_whiteout:
-	ovl_cleanup(wdir, whiteout);
-	goto out_d_drop;
 }
 
-static int ovl_remove_upper(struct dentry *dentry, bool is_dir)
+static int ovl_remove_upper(struct dentry *dentry, bool is_dir,
+			    struct list_head *list)
 {
 	struct dentry *upperdir = ovl_dentry_upper(dentry->d_parent);
 	struct inode *dir = upperdir->d_inode;
@@ -702,10 +680,8 @@ static int ovl_remove_upper(struct dentry *dentry, bool is_dir)
 	struct dentry *opaquedir = NULL;
 	int err;
 
-	/* Redirect/origin dir can be !ovl_lower_positive && not clean */
-	if (is_dir && (ovl_dentry_get_redirect(dentry) ||
-		       ovl_may_have_whiteouts(dentry))) {
-		opaquedir = ovl_check_empty_and_clear(dentry);
+	if (!list_empty(list)) {
+		opaquedir = ovl_clear_empty(dentry, list);
 		err = PTR_ERR(opaquedir);
 		if (IS_ERR(opaquedir))
 			goto out;
@@ -746,11 +722,26 @@ out:
 	return err;
 }
 
+static bool ovl_pure_upper(struct dentry *dentry)
+{
+	return !ovl_dentry_lower(dentry) &&
+	       !ovl_test_flag(OVL_WHITEOUTS, d_inode(dentry));
+}
+
 static int ovl_do_remove(struct dentry *dentry, bool is_dir)
 {
 	int err;
 	bool locked = false;
 	const struct cred *old_cred;
+	bool lower_positive = ovl_lower_positive(dentry);
+	LIST_HEAD(list);
+
+	/* No need to clean pure upper removed by vfs_rmdir() */
+	if (is_dir && (lower_positive || !ovl_pure_upper(dentry))) {
+		err = ovl_check_empty_dir(dentry, &list);
+		if (err)
+			goto out;
+	}
 
 	err = ovl_want_write(dentry);
 	if (err)
@@ -765,10 +756,10 @@ static int ovl_do_remove(struct dentry *dentry, bool is_dir)
 		goto out_drop_write;
 
 	old_cred = ovl_override_creds(dentry->d_sb);
-	if (!ovl_lower_positive(dentry))
-		err = ovl_remove_upper(dentry, is_dir);
+	if (!lower_positive)
+		err = ovl_remove_upper(dentry, is_dir, &list);
 	else
-		err = ovl_remove_and_whiteout(dentry, is_dir);
+		err = ovl_remove_and_whiteout(dentry, &list);
 	revert_creds(old_cred);
 	if (!err) {
 		if (is_dir)
@@ -780,6 +771,7 @@ static int ovl_do_remove(struct dentry *dentry, bool is_dir)
 out_drop_write:
 	ovl_drop_write(dentry);
 out:
+	ovl_cache_free(&list);
 	return err;
 }
 
@@ -915,6 +907,7 @@ static int ovl_rename(struct inode *olddir, struct dentry *old,
 	bool samedir = olddir == newdir;
 	struct dentry *opaquedir = NULL;
 	const struct cred *old_cred = NULL;
+	LIST_HEAD(list);
 
 	err = -EINVAL;
 	if (flags & ~(RENAME_EXCHANGE | RENAME_NOREPLACE))
@@ -929,6 +922,27 @@ static int ovl_rename(struct inode *olddir, struct dentry *old,
 	if (!overwrite && !ovl_can_move(new))
 		goto out;
 
+	if (overwrite && new_is_dir && !ovl_pure_upper(new)) {
+		err = ovl_check_empty_dir(new, &list);
+		if (err)
+			goto out;
+	}
+
+	if (overwrite) {
+		if (ovl_lower_positive(old)) {
+			if (!ovl_dentry_is_whiteout(new)) {
+				/* Whiteout source */
+				flags |= RENAME_WHITEOUT;
+			} else {
+				/* Switch whiteouts */
+				flags |= RENAME_EXCHANGE;
+			}
+		} else if (is_dir && ovl_dentry_is_whiteout(new)) {
+			flags |= RENAME_EXCHANGE;
+			cleanup_whiteout = true;
+		}
+	}
+
 	err = ovl_want_write(old);
 	if (err)
 		goto out;
@@ -952,9 +966,8 @@ static int ovl_rename(struct inode *olddir, struct dentry *old,
 
 	old_cred = ovl_override_creds(old->d_sb);
 
-	if (overwrite && new_is_dir && (ovl_type_merge_or_lower(new) ||
-					ovl_may_have_whiteouts(new))) {
-		opaquedir = ovl_check_empty_and_clear(new);
+	if (!list_empty(&list)) {
+		opaquedir = ovl_clear_empty(new, &list);
 		err = PTR_ERR(opaquedir);
 		if (IS_ERR(opaquedir)) {
 			opaquedir = NULL;
@@ -962,21 +975,6 @@ static int ovl_rename(struct inode *olddir, struct dentry *old,
 		}
 	}
 
-	if (overwrite) {
-		if (ovl_lower_positive(old)) {
-			if (!ovl_dentry_is_whiteout(new)) {
-				/* Whiteout source */
-				flags |= RENAME_WHITEOUT;
-			} else {
-				/* Switch whiteouts */
-				flags |= RENAME_EXCHANGE;
-			}
-		} else if (is_dir && ovl_dentry_is_whiteout(new)) {
-			flags |= RENAME_EXCHANGE;
-			cleanup_whiteout = true;
-		}
-	}
-
 	old_upperdir = ovl_dentry_upper(old->d_parent);
 	new_upperdir = ovl_dentry_upper(new->d_parent);
 
@@ -1094,6 +1092,7 @@ out_drop_write:
 	ovl_drop_write(old);
 out:
 	dput(opaquedir);
+	ovl_cache_free(&list);
 	return err;
 }
 
diff --git a/fs/overlayfs/export.c b/fs/overlayfs/export.c
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..bb94ce9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/fs/overlayfs/export.c
@@ -0,0 +1,715 @@
+/*
+ * Overlayfs NFS export support.
+ *
+ * Amir Goldstein <amir73il@gmail.com>
+ *
+ * Copyright (C) 2017-2018 CTERA Networks. All Rights Reserved.
+ *
+ * This program is free software; you can redistribute it and/or modify it
+ * under the terms of the GNU General Public License version 2 as published by
+ * the Free Software Foundation.
+ */
+
+#include <linux/fs.h>
+#include <linux/cred.h>
+#include <linux/mount.h>
+#include <linux/namei.h>
+#include <linux/xattr.h>
+#include <linux/exportfs.h>
+#include <linux/ratelimit.h>
+#include "overlayfs.h"
+
+/*
+ * We only need to encode origin if there is a chance that the same object was
+ * encoded pre copy up and then we need to stay consistent with the same
+ * encoding also after copy up. If non-pure upper is not indexed, then it was
+ * copied up before NFS export was enabled. In that case we don't need to worry
+ * about staying consistent with pre copy up encoding and we encode an upper
+ * file handle. Overlay root dentry is a private case of non-indexed upper.
+ *
+ * The following table summarizes the different file handle encodings used for
+ * different overlay object types:
+ *
+ *  Object type		| Encoding
+ * --------------------------------
+ *  Pure upper		| U
+ *  Non-indexed upper	| U
+ *  Indexed upper	| L (*)
+ *  Non-upper		| L (*)
+ *
+ * U = upper file handle
+ * L = lower file handle
+ *
+ * (*) Connecting an overlay dir from real lower dentry is not always
+ * possible when there are redirects in lower layers. To mitigate this case,
+ * we copy up the lower dir first and then encode an upper dir file handle.
+ */
+static bool ovl_should_encode_origin(struct dentry *dentry)
+{
+	struct ovl_fs *ofs = dentry->d_sb->s_fs_info;
+
+	if (!ovl_dentry_lower(dentry))
+		return false;
+
+	/*
+	 * Decoding a merge dir, whose origin's parent is under a redirected
+	 * lower dir is not always possible. As a simple aproximation, we do
+	 * not encode lower dir file handles when overlay has multiple lower
+	 * layers and origin is below the topmost lower layer.
+	 *
+	 * TODO: copy up only the parent that is under redirected lower.
+	 */
+	if (d_is_dir(dentry) && ofs->upper_mnt &&
+	    OVL_E(dentry)->lowerstack[0].layer->idx > 1)
+		return false;
+
+	/* Decoding a non-indexed upper from origin is not implemented */
+	if (ovl_dentry_upper(dentry) &&
+	    !ovl_test_flag(OVL_INDEX, d_inode(dentry)))
+		return false;
+
+	return true;
+}
+
+static int ovl_encode_maybe_copy_up(struct dentry *dentry)
+{
+	int err;
+
+	if (ovl_dentry_upper(dentry))
+		return 0;
+
+	err = ovl_want_write(dentry);
+	if (err)
+		return err;
+
+	err = ovl_copy_up(dentry);
+
+	ovl_drop_write(dentry);
+	return err;
+}
+
+static int ovl_d_to_fh(struct dentry *dentry, char *buf, int buflen)
+{
+	struct dentry *origin = ovl_dentry_lower(dentry);
+	struct ovl_fh *fh = NULL;
+	int err;
+
+	/*
+	 * If we should not encode a lower dir file handle, copy up and encode
+	 * an upper dir file handle.
+	 */
+	if (!ovl_should_encode_origin(dentry)) {
+		err = ovl_encode_maybe_copy_up(dentry);
+		if (err)
+			goto fail;
+
+		origin = NULL;
+	}
+
+	/* Encode an upper or origin file handle */
+	fh = ovl_encode_fh(origin ?: ovl_dentry_upper(dentry), !origin);
+	err = PTR_ERR(fh);
+	if (IS_ERR(fh))
+		goto fail;
+
+	err = -EOVERFLOW;
+	if (fh->len > buflen)
+		goto fail;
+
+	memcpy(buf, (char *)fh, fh->len);
+	err = fh->len;
+
+out:
+	kfree(fh);
+	return err;
+
+fail:
+	pr_warn_ratelimited("overlayfs: failed to encode file handle (%pd2, err=%i, buflen=%d, len=%d, type=%d)\n",
+			    dentry, err, buflen, fh ? (int)fh->len : 0,
+			    fh ? fh->type : 0);
+	goto out;
+}
+
+static int ovl_dentry_to_fh(struct dentry *dentry, u32 *fid, int *max_len)
+{
+	int res, len = *max_len << 2;
+
+	res = ovl_d_to_fh(dentry, (char *)fid, len);
+	if (res <= 0)
+		return FILEID_INVALID;
+
+	len = res;
+
+	/* Round up to dwords */
+	*max_len = (len + 3) >> 2;
+	return OVL_FILEID;
+}
+
+static int ovl_encode_inode_fh(struct inode *inode, u32 *fid, int *max_len,
+			       struct inode *parent)
+{
+	struct dentry *dentry;
+	int type;
+
+	/* TODO: encode connectable file handles */
+	if (parent)
+		return FILEID_INVALID;
+
+	dentry = d_find_any_alias(inode);
+	if (WARN_ON(!dentry))
+		return FILEID_INVALID;
+
+	type = ovl_dentry_to_fh(dentry, fid, max_len);
+
+	dput(dentry);
+	return type;
+}
+
+/*
+ * Find or instantiate an overlay dentry from real dentries and index.
+ */
+static struct dentry *ovl_obtain_alias(struct super_block *sb,
+				       struct dentry *upper_alias,
+				       struct ovl_path *lowerpath,
+				       struct dentry *index)
+{
+	struct dentry *lower = lowerpath ? lowerpath->dentry : NULL;
+	struct dentry *upper = upper_alias ?: index;
+	struct dentry *dentry;
+	struct inode *inode;
+	struct ovl_entry *oe;
+
+	/* We get overlay directory dentries with ovl_lookup_real() */
+	if (d_is_dir(upper ?: lower))
+		return ERR_PTR(-EIO);
+
+	inode = ovl_get_inode(sb, dget(upper), lower, index, !!lower);
+	if (IS_ERR(inode)) {
+		dput(upper);
+		return ERR_CAST(inode);
+	}
+
+	if (index)
+		ovl_set_flag(OVL_INDEX, inode);
+
+	dentry = d_find_any_alias(inode);
+	if (!dentry) {
+		dentry = d_alloc_anon(inode->i_sb);
+		if (!dentry)
+			goto nomem;
+		oe = ovl_alloc_entry(lower ? 1 : 0);
+		if (!oe)
+			goto nomem;
+
+		if (lower) {
+			oe->lowerstack->dentry = dget(lower);
+			oe->lowerstack->layer = lowerpath->layer;
+		}
+		dentry->d_fsdata = oe;
+		if (upper_alias)
+			ovl_dentry_set_upper_alias(dentry);
+	}
+
+	return d_instantiate_anon(dentry, inode);
+
+nomem:
+	iput(inode);
+	dput(dentry);
+	return ERR_PTR(-ENOMEM);
+}
+
+/* Get the upper or lower dentry in stach whose on layer @idx */
+static struct dentry *ovl_dentry_real_at(struct dentry *dentry, int idx)
+{
+	struct ovl_entry *oe = dentry->d_fsdata;
+	int i;
+
+	if (!idx)
+		return ovl_dentry_upper(dentry);
+
+	for (i = 0; i < oe->numlower; i++) {
+		if (oe->lowerstack[i].layer->idx == idx)
+			return oe->lowerstack[i].dentry;
+	}
+
+	return NULL;
+}
+
+/*
+ * Lookup a child overlay dentry to get a connected overlay dentry whose real
+ * dentry is @real. If @real is on upper layer, we lookup a child overlay
+ * dentry with the same name as the real dentry. Otherwise, we need to consult
+ * index for lookup.
+ */
+static struct dentry *ovl_lookup_real_one(struct dentry *connected,
+					  struct dentry *real,
+					  struct ovl_layer *layer)
+{
+	struct inode *dir = d_inode(connected);
+	struct dentry *this, *parent = NULL;
+	struct name_snapshot name;
+	int err;
+
+	/*
+	 * Lookup child overlay dentry by real name. The dir mutex protects us
+	 * from racing with overlay rename. If the overlay dentry that is above
+	 * real has already been moved to a parent that is not under the
+	 * connected overlay dir, we return -ECHILD and restart the lookup of
+	 * connected real path from the top.
+	 */
+	inode_lock_nested(dir, I_MUTEX_PARENT);
+	err = -ECHILD;
+	parent = dget_parent(real);
+	if (ovl_dentry_real_at(connected, layer->idx) != parent)
+		goto fail;
+
+	/*
+	 * We also need to take a snapshot of real dentry name to protect us
+	 * from racing with underlying layer rename. In this case, we don't
+	 * care about returning ESTALE, only from dereferencing a free name
+	 * pointer because we hold no lock on the real dentry.
+	 */
+	take_dentry_name_snapshot(&name, real);
+	this = lookup_one_len(name.name, connected, strlen(name.name));
+	err = PTR_ERR(this);
+	if (IS_ERR(this)) {
+		goto fail;
+	} else if (!this || !this->d_inode) {
+		dput(this);
+		err = -ENOENT;
+		goto fail;
+	} else if (ovl_dentry_real_at(this, layer->idx) != real) {
+		dput(this);
+		err = -ESTALE;
+		goto fail;
+	}
+
+out:
+	release_dentry_name_snapshot(&name);
+	dput(parent);
+	inode_unlock(dir);
+	return this;
+
+fail:
+	pr_warn_ratelimited("overlayfs: failed to lookup one by real (%pd2, layer=%d, connected=%pd2, err=%i)\n",
+			    real, layer->idx, connected, err);
+	this = ERR_PTR(err);
+	goto out;
+}
+
+static struct dentry *ovl_lookup_real(struct super_block *sb,
+				      struct dentry *real,
+				      struct ovl_layer *layer);
+
+/*
+ * Lookup an indexed or hashed overlay dentry by real inode.
+ */
+static struct dentry *ovl_lookup_real_inode(struct super_block *sb,
+					    struct dentry *real,
+					    struct ovl_layer *layer)
+{
+	struct ovl_fs *ofs = sb->s_fs_info;
+	struct ovl_layer upper_layer = { .mnt = ofs->upper_mnt };
+	struct dentry *index = NULL;
+	struct dentry *this = NULL;
+	struct inode *inode;
+
+	/*
+	 * Decoding upper dir from index is expensive, so first try to lookup
+	 * overlay dentry in inode/dcache.
+	 */
+	inode = ovl_lookup_inode(sb, real, !layer->idx);
+	if (IS_ERR(inode))
+		return ERR_CAST(inode);
+	if (inode) {
+		this = d_find_any_alias(inode);
+		iput(inode);
+	}
+
+	/*
+	 * For decoded lower dir file handle, lookup index by origin to check
+	 * if lower dir was copied up and and/or removed.
+	 */
+	if (!this && layer->idx && ofs->indexdir && !WARN_ON(!d_is_dir(real))) {
+		index = ovl_lookup_index(ofs, NULL, real, false);
+		if (IS_ERR(index))
+			return index;
+	}
+
+	/* Get connected upper overlay dir from index */
+	if (index) {
+		struct dentry *upper = ovl_index_upper(ofs, index);
+
+		dput(index);
+		if (IS_ERR_OR_NULL(upper))
+			return upper;
+
+		/*
+		 * ovl_lookup_real() in lower layer may call recursively once to
+		 * ovl_lookup_real() in upper layer. The first level call walks
+		 * back lower parents to the topmost indexed parent. The second
+		 * recursive call walks back from indexed upper to the topmost
+		 * connected/hashed upper parent (or up to root).
+		 */
+		this = ovl_lookup_real(sb, upper, &upper_layer);
+		dput(upper);
+	}
+
+	if (!this)
+		return NULL;
+
+	if (WARN_ON(ovl_dentry_real_at(this, layer->idx) != real)) {
+		dput(this);
+		this = ERR_PTR(-EIO);
+	}
+
+	return this;
+}
+
+/*
+ * Lookup an indexed or hashed overlay dentry, whose real dentry is an
+ * ancestor of @real.
+ */
+static struct dentry *ovl_lookup_real_ancestor(struct super_block *sb,
+					       struct dentry *real,
+					       struct ovl_layer *layer)
+{
+	struct dentry *next, *parent = NULL;
+	struct dentry *ancestor = ERR_PTR(-EIO);
+
+	if (real == layer->mnt->mnt_root)
+		return dget(sb->s_root);
+
+	/* Find the topmost indexed or hashed ancestor */
+	next = dget(real);
+	for (;;) {
+		parent = dget_parent(next);
+
+		/*
+		 * Lookup a matching overlay dentry in inode/dentry
+		 * cache or in index by real inode.
+		 */
+		ancestor = ovl_lookup_real_inode(sb, next, layer);
+		if (ancestor)
+			break;
+
+		if (parent == layer->mnt->mnt_root) {
+			ancestor = dget(sb->s_root);
+			break;
+		}
+
+		/*
+		 * If @real has been moved out of the layer root directory,
+		 * we will eventully hit the real fs root. This cannot happen
+		 * by legit overlay rename, so we return error in that case.
+		 */
+		if (parent == next) {
+			ancestor = ERR_PTR(-EXDEV);
+			break;
+		}
+
+		dput(next);
+		next = parent;
+	}
+
+	dput(parent);
+	dput(next);
+
+	return ancestor;
+}
+
+/*
+ * Lookup a connected overlay dentry whose real dentry is @real.
+ * If @real is on upper layer, we lookup a child overlay dentry with the same
+ * path the real dentry. Otherwise, we need to consult index for lookup.
+ */
+static struct dentry *ovl_lookup_real(struct super_block *sb,
+				      struct dentry *real,
+				      struct ovl_layer *layer)
+{
+	struct dentry *connected;
+	int err = 0;
+
+	connected = ovl_lookup_real_ancestor(sb, real, layer);
+	if (IS_ERR(connected))
+		return connected;
+
+	while (!err) {
+		struct dentry *next, *this;
+		struct dentry *parent = NULL;
+		struct dentry *real_connected = ovl_dentry_real_at(connected,
+								   layer->idx);
+
+		if (real_connected == real)
+			break;
+
+		/* Find the topmost dentry not yet connected */
+		next = dget(real);
+		for (;;) {
+			parent = dget_parent(next);
+
+			if (parent == real_connected)
+				break;
+
+			/*
+			 * If real has been moved out of 'real_connected',
+			 * we will not find 'real_connected' and hit the layer
+			 * root. In that case, we need to restart connecting.
+			 * This game can go on forever in the worst case. We
+			 * may want to consider taking s_vfs_rename_mutex if
+			 * this happens more than once.
+			 */
+			if (parent == layer->mnt->mnt_root) {
+				dput(connected);
+				connected = dget(sb->s_root);
+				break;
+			}
+
+			/*
+			 * If real file has been moved out of the layer root
+			 * directory, we will eventully hit the real fs root.
+			 * This cannot happen by legit overlay rename, so we
+			 * return error in that case.
+			 */
+			if (parent == next) {
+				err = -EXDEV;
+				break;
+			}
+
+			dput(next);
+			next = parent;
+		}
+
+		if (!err) {
+			this = ovl_lookup_real_one(connected, next, layer);
+			if (IS_ERR(this))
+				err = PTR_ERR(this);
+
+			/*
+			 * Lookup of child in overlay can fail when racing with
+			 * overlay rename of child away from 'connected' parent.
+			 * In this case, we need to restart the lookup from the
+			 * top, because we cannot trust that 'real_connected' is
+			 * still an ancestor of 'real'. There is a good chance
+			 * that the renamed overlay ancestor is now in cache, so
+			 * ovl_lookup_real_ancestor() will find it and we can
+			 * continue to connect exactly from where lookup failed.
+			 */
+			if (err == -ECHILD) {
+				this = ovl_lookup_real_ancestor(sb, real,
+								layer);
+				err = IS_ERR(this) ? PTR_ERR(this) : 0;
+			}
+			if (!err) {
+				dput(connected);
+				connected = this;
+			}
+		}
+
+		dput(parent);
+		dput(next);
+	}
+
+	if (err)
+		goto fail;
+
+	return connected;
+
+fail:
+	pr_warn_ratelimited("overlayfs: failed to lookup by real (%pd2, layer=%d, connected=%pd2, err=%i)\n",
+			    real, layer->idx, connected, err);
+	dput(connected);
+	return ERR_PTR(err);
+}
+
+/*
+ * Get an overlay dentry from upper/lower real dentries and index.
+ */
+static struct dentry *ovl_get_dentry(struct super_block *sb,
+				     struct dentry *upper,
+				     struct ovl_path *lowerpath,
+				     struct dentry *index)
+{
+	struct ovl_fs *ofs = sb->s_fs_info;
+	struct ovl_layer upper_layer = { .mnt = ofs->upper_mnt };
+	struct ovl_layer *layer = upper ? &upper_layer : lowerpath->layer;
+	struct dentry *real = upper ?: (index ?: lowerpath->dentry);
+
+	/*
+	 * Obtain a disconnected overlay dentry from a non-dir real dentry
+	 * and index.
+	 */
+	if (!d_is_dir(real))
+		return ovl_obtain_alias(sb, upper, lowerpath, index);
+
+	/* Removed empty directory? */
+	if ((real->d_flags & DCACHE_DISCONNECTED) || d_unhashed(real))
+		return ERR_PTR(-ENOENT);
+
+	/*
+	 * If real dentry is connected and hashed, get a connected overlay
+	 * dentry whose real dentry is @real.
+	 */
+	return ovl_lookup_real(sb, real, layer);
+}
+
+static struct dentry *ovl_upper_fh_to_d(struct super_block *sb,
+					struct ovl_fh *fh)
+{
+	struct ovl_fs *ofs = sb->s_fs_info;
+	struct dentry *dentry;
+	struct dentry *upper;
+
+	if (!ofs->upper_mnt)
+		return ERR_PTR(-EACCES);
+
+	upper = ovl_decode_fh(fh, ofs->upper_mnt);
+	if (IS_ERR_OR_NULL(upper))
+		return upper;
+
+	dentry = ovl_get_dentry(sb, upper, NULL, NULL);
+	dput(upper);
+
+	return dentry;
+}
+
+static struct dentry *ovl_lower_fh_to_d(struct super_block *sb,
+					struct ovl_fh *fh)
+{
+	struct ovl_fs *ofs = sb->s_fs_info;
+	struct ovl_path origin = { };
+	struct ovl_path *stack = &origin;
+	struct dentry *dentry = NULL;
+	struct dentry *index = NULL;
+	struct inode *inode = NULL;
+	bool is_deleted = false;
+	int err;
+
+	/* First lookup indexed upper by fh */
+	if (ofs->indexdir) {
+		index = ovl_get_index_fh(ofs, fh);
+		err = PTR_ERR(index);
+		if (IS_ERR(index)) {
+			if (err != -ESTALE)
+				return ERR_PTR(err);
+
+			/* Found a whiteout index - treat as deleted inode */
+			is_deleted = true;
+			index = NULL;
+		}
+	}
+
+	/* Then try to get upper dir by index */
+	if (index && d_is_dir(index)) {
+		struct dentry *upper = ovl_index_upper(ofs, index);
+
+		err = PTR_ERR(upper);
+		if (IS_ERR_OR_NULL(upper))
+			goto out_err;
+
+		dentry = ovl_get_dentry(sb, upper, NULL, NULL);
+		dput(upper);
+		goto out;
+	}
+
+	/* Then lookup origin by fh */
+	err = ovl_check_origin_fh(ofs, fh, NULL, &stack);
+	if (err) {
+		goto out_err;
+	} else if (index) {
+		err = ovl_verify_origin(index, origin.dentry, false);
+		if (err)
+			goto out_err;
+	} else if (is_deleted) {
+		/* Lookup deleted non-dir by origin inode */
+		if (!d_is_dir(origin.dentry))
+			inode = ovl_lookup_inode(sb, origin.dentry, false);
+		err = -ESTALE;
+		if (!inode || atomic_read(&inode->i_count) == 1)
+			goto out_err;
+
+		/* Deleted but still open? */
+		index = dget(ovl_i_dentry_upper(inode));
+	}
+
+	dentry = ovl_get_dentry(sb, NULL, &origin, index);
+
+out:
+	dput(origin.dentry);
+	dput(index);
+	iput(inode);
+	return dentry;
+
+out_err:
+	dentry = ERR_PTR(err);
+	goto out;
+}
+
+static struct dentry *ovl_fh_to_dentry(struct super_block *sb, struct fid *fid,
+				       int fh_len, int fh_type)
+{
+	struct dentry *dentry = NULL;
+	struct ovl_fh *fh = (struct ovl_fh *) fid;
+	int len = fh_len << 2;
+	unsigned int flags = 0;
+	int err;
+
+	err = -EINVAL;
+	if (fh_type != OVL_FILEID)
+		goto out_err;
+
+	err = ovl_check_fh_len(fh, len);
+	if (err)
+		goto out_err;
+
+	flags = fh->flags;
+	dentry = (flags & OVL_FH_FLAG_PATH_UPPER) ?
+		 ovl_upper_fh_to_d(sb, fh) :
+		 ovl_lower_fh_to_d(sb, fh);
+	err = PTR_ERR(dentry);
+	if (IS_ERR(dentry) && err != -ESTALE)
+		goto out_err;
+
+	return dentry;
+
+out_err:
+	pr_warn_ratelimited("overlayfs: failed to decode file handle (len=%d, type=%d, flags=%x, err=%i)\n",
+			    len, fh_type, flags, err);
+	return ERR_PTR(err);
+}
+
+static struct dentry *ovl_fh_to_parent(struct super_block *sb, struct fid *fid,
+				       int fh_len, int fh_type)
+{
+	pr_warn_ratelimited("overlayfs: connectable file handles not supported; use 'no_subtree_check' exportfs option.\n");
+	return ERR_PTR(-EACCES);
+}
+
+static int ovl_get_name(struct dentry *parent, char *name,
+			struct dentry *child)
+{
+	/*
+	 * ovl_fh_to_dentry() returns connected dir overlay dentries and
+	 * ovl_fh_to_parent() is not implemented, so we should not get here.
+	 */
+	WARN_ON_ONCE(1);
+	return -EIO;
+}
+
+static struct dentry *ovl_get_parent(struct dentry *dentry)
+{
+	/*
+	 * ovl_fh_to_dentry() returns connected dir overlay dentries, so we
+	 * should not get here.
+	 */
+	WARN_ON_ONCE(1);
+	return ERR_PTR(-EIO);
+}
+
+const struct export_operations ovl_export_operations = {
+	.encode_fh	= ovl_encode_inode_fh,
+	.fh_to_dentry	= ovl_fh_to_dentry,
+	.fh_to_parent	= ovl_fh_to_parent,
+	.get_name	= ovl_get_name,
+	.get_parent	= ovl_get_parent,
+};
diff --git a/fs/overlayfs/inode.c b/fs/overlayfs/inode.c
index 00b6b29..fcd97b7 100644
--- a/fs/overlayfs/inode.c
+++ b/fs/overlayfs/inode.c
@@ -105,12 +105,20 @@ int ovl_getattr(const struct path *path, struct kstat *stat,
 			 * Lower hardlinks may be broken on copy up to different
 			 * upper files, so we cannot use the lower origin st_ino
 			 * for those different files, even for the same fs case.
+			 *
+			 * Similarly, several redirected dirs can point to the
+			 * same dir on a lower layer. With the "verify_lower"
+			 * feature, we do not use the lower origin st_ino, if
+			 * we haven't verified that this redirect is unique.
+			 *
 			 * With inodes index enabled, it is safe to use st_ino
-			 * of an indexed hardlinked origin. The index validates
-			 * that the upper hardlink is not broken.
+			 * of an indexed origin. The index validates that the
+			 * upper hardlink is not broken and that a redirected
+			 * dir is the only redirect to that origin.
 			 */
-			if (is_dir || lowerstat.nlink == 1 ||
-			    ovl_test_flag(OVL_INDEX, d_inode(dentry)))
+			if (ovl_test_flag(OVL_INDEX, d_inode(dentry)) ||
+			    (!ovl_verify_lower(dentry->d_sb) &&
+			     (is_dir || lowerstat.nlink == 1)))
 				stat->ino = lowerstat.ino;
 
 			if (samefs)
@@ -343,8 +351,10 @@ struct posix_acl *ovl_get_acl(struct inode *inode, int type)
 
 static bool ovl_open_need_copy_up(struct dentry *dentry, int flags)
 {
+	/* Copy up of disconnected dentry does not set upper alias */
 	if (ovl_dentry_upper(dentry) &&
-	    ovl_dentry_has_upper_alias(dentry))
+	    (ovl_dentry_has_upper_alias(dentry) ||
+	     (dentry->d_flags & DCACHE_DISCONNECTED)))
 		return false;
 
 	if (special_file(d_inode(dentry)->i_mode))
@@ -604,9 +614,25 @@ static int ovl_inode_set(struct inode *inode, void *data)
 }
 
 static bool ovl_verify_inode(struct inode *inode, struct dentry *lowerdentry,
-			     struct dentry *upperdentry)
+			     struct dentry *upperdentry, bool strict)
 {
 	/*
+	 * For directories, @strict verify from lookup path performs consistency
+	 * checks, so NULL lower/upper in dentry must match NULL lower/upper in
+	 * inode. Non @strict verify from NFS handle decode path passes NULL for
+	 * 'unknown' lower/upper.
+	 */
+	if (S_ISDIR(inode->i_mode) && strict) {
+		/* Real lower dir moved to upper layer under us? */
+		if (!lowerdentry && ovl_inode_lower(inode))
+			return false;
+
+		/* Lookup of an uncovered redirect origin? */
+		if (!upperdentry && ovl_inode_upper(inode))
+			return false;
+	}
+
+	/*
 	 * Allow non-NULL lower inode in ovl_inode even if lowerdentry is NULL.
 	 * This happens when finding a copied up overlay inode for a renamed
 	 * or hardlinked overlay dentry and lower dentry cannot be followed
@@ -625,14 +651,35 @@ static bool ovl_verify_inode(struct inode *inode, struct dentry *lowerdentry,
 	return true;
 }
 
-struct inode *ovl_get_inode(struct dentry *dentry, struct dentry *upperdentry,
-			    struct dentry *index)
+struct inode *ovl_lookup_inode(struct super_block *sb, struct dentry *real,
+			       bool is_upper)
 {
-	struct dentry *lowerdentry = ovl_dentry_lower(dentry);
+	struct inode *inode, *key = d_inode(real);
+
+	inode = ilookup5(sb, (unsigned long) key, ovl_inode_test, key);
+	if (!inode)
+		return NULL;
+
+	if (!ovl_verify_inode(inode, is_upper ? NULL : real,
+			      is_upper ? real : NULL, false)) {
+		iput(inode);
+		return ERR_PTR(-ESTALE);
+	}
+
+	return inode;
+}
+
+struct inode *ovl_get_inode(struct super_block *sb, struct dentry *upperdentry,
+			    struct dentry *lowerdentry, struct dentry *index,
+			    unsigned int numlower)
+{
+	struct ovl_fs *ofs = sb->s_fs_info;
 	struct inode *realinode = upperdentry ? d_inode(upperdentry) : NULL;
 	struct inode *inode;
 	/* Already indexed or could be indexed on copy up? */
-	bool indexed = (index || (ovl_indexdir(dentry->d_sb) && !upperdentry));
+	bool indexed = (index || (ovl_indexdir(sb) && !upperdentry));
+	struct dentry *origin = indexed ? lowerdentry : NULL;
+	bool is_dir;
 
 	if (WARN_ON(upperdentry && indexed && !lowerdentry))
 		return ERR_PTR(-EIO);
@@ -641,17 +688,22 @@ struct inode *ovl_get_inode(struct dentry *dentry, struct dentry *upperdentry,
 		realinode = d_inode(lowerdentry);
 
 	/*
-	 * Copy up origin (lower) may exist for non-indexed upper, but we must
-	 * not use lower as hash key in that case.
-	 * Hash inodes that are or could be indexed by origin inode and
-	 * non-indexed upper inodes that could be hard linked by upper inode.
+	 * Copy up origin (lower) may exist for non-indexed non-dir upper, but
+	 * we must not use lower as hash key in that case.
+	 * Hash non-dir that is or could be indexed by origin inode.
+	 * Hash dir that is or could be merged by origin inode.
+	 * Hash pure upper and non-indexed non-dir by upper inode.
+	 * Hash non-indexed dir by upper inode for NFS export.
 	 */
-	if (!S_ISDIR(realinode->i_mode) && (upperdentry || indexed)) {
-		struct inode *key = d_inode(indexed ? lowerdentry :
-						      upperdentry);
-		unsigned int nlink;
+	is_dir = S_ISDIR(realinode->i_mode);
+	if (is_dir && (indexed || !sb->s_export_op || !ofs->upper_mnt))
+		origin = lowerdentry;
+
+	if (upperdentry || origin) {
+		struct inode *key = d_inode(origin ?: upperdentry);
+		unsigned int nlink = is_dir ? 1 : realinode->i_nlink;
 
-		inode = iget5_locked(dentry->d_sb, (unsigned long) key,
+		inode = iget5_locked(sb, (unsigned long) key,
 				     ovl_inode_test, ovl_inode_set, key);
 		if (!inode)
 			goto out_nomem;
@@ -660,7 +712,8 @@ struct inode *ovl_get_inode(struct dentry *dentry, struct dentry *upperdentry,
 			 * Verify that the underlying files stored in the inode
 			 * match those in the dentry.
 			 */
-			if (!ovl_verify_inode(inode, lowerdentry, upperdentry)) {
+			if (!ovl_verify_inode(inode, lowerdentry, upperdentry,
+					      true)) {
 				iput(inode);
 				inode = ERR_PTR(-ESTALE);
 				goto out;
@@ -670,11 +723,12 @@ struct inode *ovl_get_inode(struct dentry *dentry, struct dentry *upperdentry,
 			goto out;
 		}
 
-		nlink = ovl_get_nlink(lowerdentry, upperdentry,
-				      realinode->i_nlink);
+		/* Recalculate nlink for non-dir due to indexing */
+		if (!is_dir)
+			nlink = ovl_get_nlink(lowerdentry, upperdentry, nlink);
 		set_nlink(inode, nlink);
 	} else {
-		inode = new_inode(dentry->d_sb);
+		inode = new_inode(sb);
 		if (!inode)
 			goto out_nomem;
 	}
@@ -685,10 +739,8 @@ struct inode *ovl_get_inode(struct dentry *dentry, struct dentry *upperdentry,
 		ovl_set_flag(OVL_IMPURE, inode);
 
 	/* Check for non-merge dir that may have whiteouts */
-	if (S_ISDIR(realinode->i_mode)) {
-		struct ovl_entry *oe = dentry->d_fsdata;
-
-		if (((upperdentry && lowerdentry) || oe->numlower > 1) ||
+	if (is_dir) {
+		if (((upperdentry && lowerdentry) || numlower > 1) ||
 		    ovl_check_origin_xattr(upperdentry ?: lowerdentry)) {
 			ovl_set_flag(OVL_WHITEOUTS, inode);
 		}
diff --git a/fs/overlayfs/namei.c b/fs/overlayfs/namei.c
index beb945e..de3e6da 100644
--- a/fs/overlayfs/namei.c
+++ b/fs/overlayfs/namei.c
@@ -9,6 +9,7 @@
 
 #include <linux/fs.h>
 #include <linux/cred.h>
+#include <linux/ctype.h>
 #include <linux/namei.h>
 #include <linux/xattr.h>
 #include <linux/ratelimit.h>
@@ -84,15 +85,54 @@ invalid:
 
 static int ovl_acceptable(void *ctx, struct dentry *dentry)
 {
-	return 1;
+	/*
+	 * A non-dir origin may be disconnected, which is fine, because
+	 * we only need it for its unique inode number.
+	 */
+	if (!d_is_dir(dentry))
+		return 1;
+
+	/* Don't decode a deleted empty directory */
+	if (d_unhashed(dentry))
+		return 0;
+
+	/* Check if directory belongs to the layer we are decoding from */
+	return is_subdir(dentry, ((struct vfsmount *)ctx)->mnt_root);
 }
 
-static struct ovl_fh *ovl_get_origin_fh(struct dentry *dentry)
+/*
+ * Check validity of an overlay file handle buffer.
+ *
+ * Return 0 for a valid file handle.
+ * Return -ENODATA for "origin unknown".
+ * Return <0 for an invalid file handle.
+ */
+int ovl_check_fh_len(struct ovl_fh *fh, int fh_len)
 {
-	int res;
+	if (fh_len < sizeof(struct ovl_fh) || fh_len < fh->len)
+		return -EINVAL;
+
+	if (fh->magic != OVL_FH_MAGIC)
+		return -EINVAL;
+
+	/* Treat larger version and unknown flags as "origin unknown" */
+	if (fh->version > OVL_FH_VERSION || fh->flags & ~OVL_FH_FLAG_ALL)
+		return -ENODATA;
+
+	/* Treat endianness mismatch as "origin unknown" */
+	if (!(fh->flags & OVL_FH_FLAG_ANY_ENDIAN) &&
+	    (fh->flags & OVL_FH_FLAG_BIG_ENDIAN) != OVL_FH_FLAG_CPU_ENDIAN)
+		return -ENODATA;
+
+	return 0;
+}
+
+static struct ovl_fh *ovl_get_fh(struct dentry *dentry, const char *name)
+{
+	int res, err;
 	struct ovl_fh *fh = NULL;
 
-	res = vfs_getxattr(dentry, OVL_XATTR_ORIGIN, NULL, 0);
+	res = vfs_getxattr(dentry, name, NULL, 0);
 	if (res < 0) {
 		if (res == -ENODATA || res == -EOPNOTSUPP)
 			return NULL;
@@ -102,28 +142,20 @@ static struct ovl_fh *ovl_get_origin_fh(struct dentry *dentry)
 	if (res == 0)
 		return NULL;
 
-	fh  = kzalloc(res, GFP_KERNEL);
+	fh = kzalloc(res, GFP_KERNEL);
 	if (!fh)
 		return ERR_PTR(-ENOMEM);
 
-	res = vfs_getxattr(dentry, OVL_XATTR_ORIGIN, fh, res);
+	res = vfs_getxattr(dentry, name, fh, res);
 	if (res < 0)
 		goto fail;
 
-	if (res < sizeof(struct ovl_fh) || res < fh->len)
-		goto invalid;
-
-	if (fh->magic != OVL_FH_MAGIC)
+	err = ovl_check_fh_len(fh, res);
+	if (err < 0) {
+		if (err == -ENODATA)
+			goto out;
 		goto invalid;
-
-	/* Treat larger version and unknown flags as "origin unknown" */
-	if (fh->version > OVL_FH_VERSION || fh->flags & ~OVL_FH_FLAG_ALL)
-		goto out;
-
-	/* Treat endianness mismatch as "origin unknown" */
-	if (!(fh->flags & OVL_FH_FLAG_ANY_ENDIAN) &&
-	    (fh->flags & OVL_FH_FLAG_BIG_ENDIAN) != OVL_FH_FLAG_CPU_ENDIAN)
-		goto out;
+	}
 
 	return fh;
 
@@ -139,47 +171,41 @@ invalid:
 	goto out;
 }
 
-static struct dentry *ovl_get_origin(struct dentry *dentry,
-				     struct vfsmount *mnt)
+struct dentry *ovl_decode_fh(struct ovl_fh *fh, struct vfsmount *mnt)
 {
-	struct dentry *origin = NULL;
-	struct ovl_fh *fh = ovl_get_origin_fh(dentry);
+	struct dentry *real;
 	int bytes;
 
-	if (IS_ERR_OR_NULL(fh))
-		return (struct dentry *)fh;
-
 	/*
 	 * Make sure that the stored uuid matches the uuid of the lower
 	 * layer where file handle will be decoded.
 	 */
 	if (!uuid_equal(&fh->uuid, &mnt->mnt_sb->s_uuid))
-		goto out;
+		return NULL;
 
 	bytes = (fh->len - offsetof(struct ovl_fh, fid));
-	origin = exportfs_decode_fh(mnt, (struct fid *)fh->fid,
-				    bytes >> 2, (int)fh->type,
-				    ovl_acceptable, NULL);
-	if (IS_ERR(origin)) {
-		/* Treat stale file handle as "origin unknown" */
-		if (origin == ERR_PTR(-ESTALE))
-			origin = NULL;
-		goto out;
+	real = exportfs_decode_fh(mnt, (struct fid *)fh->fid,
+				  bytes >> 2, (int)fh->type,
+				  ovl_acceptable, mnt);
+	if (IS_ERR(real)) {
+		/*
+		 * Treat stale file handle to lower file as "origin unknown".
+		 * upper file handle could become stale when upper file is
+		 * unlinked and this information is needed to handle stale
+		 * index entries correctly.
+		 */
+		if (real == ERR_PTR(-ESTALE) &&
+		    !(fh->flags & OVL_FH_FLAG_PATH_UPPER))
+			real = NULL;
+		return real;
 	}
 
-	if (ovl_dentry_weird(origin) ||
-	    ((d_inode(origin)->i_mode ^ d_inode(dentry)->i_mode) & S_IFMT))
-		goto invalid;
-
-out:
-	kfree(fh);
-	return origin;
+	if (ovl_dentry_weird(real)) {
+		dput(real);
+		return NULL;
+	}
 
-invalid:
-	pr_warn_ratelimited("overlayfs: invalid origin (%pd2)\n", origin);
-	dput(origin);
-	origin = NULL;
-	goto out;
+	return real;
 }
 
 static bool ovl_is_opaquedir(struct dentry *dentry)
@@ -284,47 +310,81 @@ static int ovl_lookup_layer(struct dentry *base, struct ovl_lookup_data *d,
 }
 
 
-static int ovl_check_origin(struct dentry *upperdentry,
-			    struct ovl_path *lower, unsigned int numlower,
-			    struct ovl_path **stackp, unsigned int *ctrp)
+int ovl_check_origin_fh(struct ovl_fs *ofs, struct ovl_fh *fh,
+			struct dentry *upperdentry, struct ovl_path **stackp)
 {
-	struct vfsmount *mnt;
 	struct dentry *origin = NULL;
 	int i;
 
-	for (i = 0; i < numlower; i++) {
-		mnt = lower[i].layer->mnt;
-		origin = ovl_get_origin(upperdentry, mnt);
-		if (IS_ERR(origin))
-			return PTR_ERR(origin);
-
+	for (i = 0; i < ofs->numlower; i++) {
+		origin = ovl_decode_fh(fh, ofs->lower_layers[i].mnt);
 		if (origin)
 			break;
 	}
 
 	if (!origin)
-		return 0;
+		return -ESTALE;
+	else if (IS_ERR(origin))
+		return PTR_ERR(origin);
+
+	if (upperdentry && !ovl_is_whiteout(upperdentry) &&
+	    ((d_inode(origin)->i_mode ^ d_inode(upperdentry)->i_mode) & S_IFMT))
+		goto invalid;
 
-	BUG_ON(*ctrp);
 	if (!*stackp)
 		*stackp = kmalloc(sizeof(struct ovl_path), GFP_KERNEL);
 	if (!*stackp) {
 		dput(origin);
 		return -ENOMEM;
 	}
-	**stackp = (struct ovl_path){.dentry = origin, .layer = lower[i].layer};
-	*ctrp = 1;
+	**stackp = (struct ovl_path){
+		.dentry = origin,
+		.layer = &ofs->lower_layers[i]
+	};
+
+	return 0;
+
+invalid:
+	pr_warn_ratelimited("overlayfs: invalid origin (%pd2, ftype=%x, origin ftype=%x).\n",
+			    upperdentry, d_inode(upperdentry)->i_mode & S_IFMT,
+			    d_inode(origin)->i_mode & S_IFMT);
+	dput(origin);
+	return -EIO;
+}
+
+static int ovl_check_origin(struct ovl_fs *ofs, struct dentry *upperdentry,
+			    struct ovl_path **stackp, unsigned int *ctrp)
+{
+	struct ovl_fh *fh = ovl_get_fh(upperdentry, OVL_XATTR_ORIGIN);
+	int err;
+
+	if (IS_ERR_OR_NULL(fh))
+		return PTR_ERR(fh);
+
+	err = ovl_check_origin_fh(ofs, fh, upperdentry, stackp);
+	kfree(fh);
+
+	if (err) {
+		if (err == -ESTALE)
+			return 0;
+		return err;
+	}
+
+	if (WARN_ON(*ctrp))
+		return -EIO;
 
+	*ctrp = 1;
 	return 0;
 }
 
 /*
- * Verify that @fh matches the origin file handle stored in OVL_XATTR_ORIGIN.
+ * Verify that @fh matches the file handle stored in xattr @name.
  * Return 0 on match, -ESTALE on mismatch, < 0 on error.
  */
-static int ovl_verify_origin_fh(struct dentry *dentry, const struct ovl_fh *fh)
+static int ovl_verify_fh(struct dentry *dentry, const char *name,
+			 const struct ovl_fh *fh)
 {
-	struct ovl_fh *ofh = ovl_get_origin_fh(dentry);
+	struct ovl_fh *ofh = ovl_get_fh(dentry, name);
 	int err = 0;
 
 	if (!ofh)
@@ -341,28 +401,28 @@ static int ovl_verify_origin_fh(struct dentry *dentry, const struct ovl_fh *fh)
 }
 
 /*
- * Verify that an inode matches the origin file handle stored in upper inode.
+ * Verify that @real dentry matches the file handle stored in xattr @name.
  *
- * If @set is true and there is no stored file handle, encode and store origin
- * file handle in OVL_XATTR_ORIGIN.
+ * If @set is true and there is no stored file handle, encode @real and store
+ * file handle in xattr @name.
  *
- * Return 0 on match, -ESTALE on mismatch, < 0 on error.
+ * Return 0 on match, -ESTALE on mismatch, -ENODATA on no xattr, < 0 on error.
  */
-int ovl_verify_origin(struct dentry *dentry, struct dentry *origin,
-		      bool is_upper, bool set)
+int ovl_verify_set_fh(struct dentry *dentry, const char *name,
+		      struct dentry *real, bool is_upper, bool set)
 {
 	struct inode *inode;
 	struct ovl_fh *fh;
 	int err;
 
-	fh = ovl_encode_fh(origin, is_upper);
+	fh = ovl_encode_fh(real, is_upper);
 	err = PTR_ERR(fh);
 	if (IS_ERR(fh))
 		goto fail;
 
-	err = ovl_verify_origin_fh(dentry, fh);
+	err = ovl_verify_fh(dentry, name, fh);
 	if (set && err == -ENODATA)
-		err = ovl_do_setxattr(dentry, OVL_XATTR_ORIGIN, fh, fh->len, 0);
+		err = ovl_do_setxattr(dentry, name, fh, fh->len, 0);
 	if (err)
 		goto fail;
 
@@ -371,45 +431,71 @@ out:
 	return err;
 
 fail:
-	inode = d_inode(origin);
-	pr_warn_ratelimited("overlayfs: failed to verify origin (%pd2, ino=%lu, err=%i)\n",
-			    origin, inode ? inode->i_ino : 0, err);
+	inode = d_inode(real);
+	pr_warn_ratelimited("overlayfs: failed to verify %s (%pd2, ino=%lu, err=%i)\n",
+			    is_upper ? "upper" : "origin", real,
+			    inode ? inode->i_ino : 0, err);
 	goto out;
 }
 
+/* Get upper dentry from index */
+struct dentry *ovl_index_upper(struct ovl_fs *ofs, struct dentry *index)
+{
+	struct ovl_fh *fh;
+	struct dentry *upper;
+
+	if (!d_is_dir(index))
+		return dget(index);
+
+	fh = ovl_get_fh(index, OVL_XATTR_UPPER);
+	if (IS_ERR_OR_NULL(fh))
+		return ERR_CAST(fh);
+
+	upper = ovl_decode_fh(fh, ofs->upper_mnt);
+	kfree(fh);
+
+	if (IS_ERR_OR_NULL(upper))
+		return upper ?: ERR_PTR(-ESTALE);
+
+	if (!d_is_dir(upper)) {
+		pr_warn_ratelimited("overlayfs: invalid index upper (%pd2, upper=%pd2).\n",
+				    index, upper);
+		dput(upper);
+		return ERR_PTR(-EIO);
+	}
+
+	return upper;
+}
+
+/* Is this a leftover from create/whiteout of directory index entry? */
+static bool ovl_is_temp_index(struct dentry *index)
+{
+	return index->d_name.name[0] == '#';
+}
+
 /*
  * Verify that an index entry name matches the origin file handle stored in
  * OVL_XATTR_ORIGIN and that origin file handle can be decoded to lower path.
  * Return 0 on match, -ESTALE on mismatch or stale origin, < 0 on error.
  */
-int ovl_verify_index(struct dentry *index, struct ovl_path *lower,
-		     unsigned int numlower)
+int ovl_verify_index(struct ovl_fs *ofs, struct dentry *index)
 {
 	struct ovl_fh *fh = NULL;
 	size_t len;
 	struct ovl_path origin = { };
 	struct ovl_path *stack = &origin;
-	unsigned int ctr = 0;
+	struct dentry *upper = NULL;
 	int err;
 
 	if (!d_inode(index))
 		return 0;
 
-	/*
-	 * Directory index entries are going to be used for looking up
-	 * redirected upper dirs by lower dir fh when decoding an overlay
-	 * file handle of a merge dir. Whiteout index entries are going to be
-	 * used as an indication that an exported overlay file handle should
-	 * be treated as stale (i.e. after unlink of the overlay inode).
-	 * We don't know the verification rules for directory and whiteout
-	 * index entries, because they have not been implemented yet, so return
-	 * EINVAL if those entries are found to abort the mount to avoid
-	 * corrupting an index that was created by a newer kernel.
-	 */
-	err = -EINVAL;
-	if (d_is_dir(index) || ovl_is_whiteout(index))
+	/* Cleanup leftover from index create/cleanup attempt */
+	err = -ESTALE;
+	if (ovl_is_temp_index(index))
 		goto fail;
 
+	err = -EINVAL;
 	if (index->d_name.len < sizeof(struct ovl_fh)*2)
 		goto fail;
 
@@ -420,26 +506,68 @@ int ovl_verify_index(struct dentry *index, struct ovl_path *lower,
 		goto fail;
 
 	err = -EINVAL;
-	if (hex2bin((u8 *)fh, index->d_name.name, len) || len != fh->len)
+	if (hex2bin((u8 *)fh, index->d_name.name, len))
 		goto fail;
 
-	err = ovl_verify_origin_fh(index, fh);
+	err = ovl_check_fh_len(fh, len);
 	if (err)
 		goto fail;
 
-	err = ovl_check_origin(index, lower, numlower, &stack, &ctr);
-	if (!err && !ctr)
-		err = -ESTALE;
+	/*
+	 * Whiteout index entries are used as an indication that an exported
+	 * overlay file handle should be treated as stale (i.e. after unlink
+	 * of the overlay inode). These entries contain no origin xattr.
+	 */
+	if (ovl_is_whiteout(index))
+		goto out;
+
+	/*
+	 * Verifying directory index entries are not stale is expensive, so
+	 * only verify stale dir index if NFS export is enabled.
+	 */
+	if (d_is_dir(index) && !ofs->config.nfs_export)
+		goto out;
+
+	/*
+	 * Directory index entries should have 'upper' xattr pointing to the
+	 * real upper dir. Non-dir index entries are hardlinks to the upper
+	 * real inode. For non-dir index, we can read the copy up origin xattr
+	 * directly from the index dentry, but for dir index we first need to
+	 * decode the upper directory.
+	 */
+	upper = ovl_index_upper(ofs, index);
+	if (IS_ERR_OR_NULL(upper)) {
+		err = PTR_ERR(upper);
+		/*
+		 * Directory index entries with no 'upper' xattr need to be
+		 * removed. When dir index entry has a stale 'upper' xattr,
+		 * we assume that upper dir was removed and we treat the dir
+		 * index as orphan entry that needs to be whited out.
+		 */
+		if (err == -ESTALE)
+			goto orphan;
+		else if (!err)
+			err = -ESTALE;
+		goto fail;
+	}
+
+	err = ovl_verify_fh(upper, OVL_XATTR_ORIGIN, fh);
+	dput(upper);
 	if (err)
 		goto fail;
 
-	/* Check if index is orphan and don't warn before cleaning it */
-	if (d_inode(index)->i_nlink == 1 &&
-	    ovl_get_nlink(origin.dentry, index, 0) == 0)
-		err = -ENOENT;
+	/* Check if non-dir index is orphan and don't warn before cleaning it */
+	if (!d_is_dir(index) && d_inode(index)->i_nlink == 1) {
+		err = ovl_check_origin_fh(ofs, fh, index, &stack);
+		if (err)
+			goto fail;
+
+		if (ovl_get_nlink(origin.dentry, index, 0) == 0)
+			goto orphan;
+	}
 
-	dput(origin.dentry);
 out:
+	dput(origin.dentry);
 	kfree(fh);
 	return err;
 
@@ -447,6 +575,28 @@ fail:
 	pr_warn_ratelimited("overlayfs: failed to verify index (%pd2, ftype=%x, err=%i)\n",
 			    index, d_inode(index)->i_mode & S_IFMT, err);
 	goto out;
+
+orphan:
+	pr_warn_ratelimited("overlayfs: orphan index entry (%pd2, ftype=%x, nlink=%u)\n",
+			    index, d_inode(index)->i_mode & S_IFMT,
+			    d_inode(index)->i_nlink);
+	err = -ENOENT;
+	goto out;
+}
+
+static int ovl_get_index_name_fh(struct ovl_fh *fh, struct qstr *name)
+{
+	char *n, *s;
+
+	n = kzalloc(fh->len * 2, GFP_KERNEL);
+	if (!n)
+		return -ENOMEM;
+
+	s  = bin2hex(n, fh, fh->len);
+	*name = (struct qstr) QSTR_INIT(n, s - n);
+
+	return 0;
+
 }
 
 /*
@@ -466,35 +616,58 @@ fail:
  */
 int ovl_get_index_name(struct dentry *origin, struct qstr *name)
 {
-	int err;
 	struct ovl_fh *fh;
-	char *n, *s;
+	int err;
 
 	fh = ovl_encode_fh(origin, false);
 	if (IS_ERR(fh))
 		return PTR_ERR(fh);
 
-	err = -ENOMEM;
-	n = kzalloc(fh->len * 2, GFP_KERNEL);
-	if (n) {
-		s  = bin2hex(n, fh, fh->len);
-		*name = (struct qstr) QSTR_INIT(n, s - n);
-		err = 0;
-	}
-	kfree(fh);
+	err = ovl_get_index_name_fh(fh, name);
 
+	kfree(fh);
 	return err;
+}
+
+/* Lookup index by file handle for NFS export */
+struct dentry *ovl_get_index_fh(struct ovl_fs *ofs, struct ovl_fh *fh)
+{
+	struct dentry *index;
+	struct qstr name;
+	int err;
+
+	err = ovl_get_index_name_fh(fh, &name);
+	if (err)
+		return ERR_PTR(err);
+
+	index = lookup_one_len_unlocked(name.name, ofs->indexdir, name.len);
+	kfree(name.name);
+	if (IS_ERR(index)) {
+		if (PTR_ERR(index) == -ENOENT)
+			index = NULL;
+		return index;
+	}
 
+	if (d_is_negative(index))
+		err = 0;
+	else if (ovl_is_whiteout(index))
+		err = -ESTALE;
+	else if (ovl_dentry_weird(index))
+		err = -EIO;
+	else
+		return index;
+
+	dput(index);
+	return ERR_PTR(err);
 }
 
-static struct dentry *ovl_lookup_index(struct dentry *dentry,
-				       struct dentry *upper,
-				       struct dentry *origin)
+struct dentry *ovl_lookup_index(struct ovl_fs *ofs, struct dentry *upper,
+				struct dentry *origin, bool verify)
 {
-	struct ovl_fs *ofs = dentry->d_sb->s_fs_info;
 	struct dentry *index;
 	struct inode *inode;
 	struct qstr name;
+	bool is_dir = d_is_dir(origin);
 	int err;
 
 	err = ovl_get_index_name(origin, &name);
@@ -518,8 +691,16 @@ static struct dentry *ovl_lookup_index(struct dentry *dentry,
 	inode = d_inode(index);
 	if (d_is_negative(index)) {
 		goto out_dput;
-	} else if (upper && d_inode(upper) != inode) {
-		goto out_dput;
+	} else if (ovl_is_whiteout(index) && !verify) {
+		/*
+		 * When index lookup is called with !verify for decoding an
+		 * overlay file handle, a whiteout index implies that decode
+		 * should treat file handle as stale and no need to print a
+		 * warning about it.
+		 */
+		dput(index);
+		index = ERR_PTR(-ESTALE);
+		goto out;
 	} else if (ovl_dentry_weird(index) || ovl_is_whiteout(index) ||
 		   ((inode->i_mode ^ d_inode(origin)->i_mode) & S_IFMT)) {
 		/*
@@ -533,8 +714,25 @@ static struct dentry *ovl_lookup_index(struct dentry *dentry,
 				    index, d_inode(index)->i_mode & S_IFMT,
 				    d_inode(origin)->i_mode & S_IFMT);
 		goto fail;
-	}
+	} else if (is_dir && verify) {
+		if (!upper) {
+			pr_warn_ratelimited("overlayfs: suspected uncovered redirected dir found (origin=%pd2, index=%pd2).\n",
+					    origin, index);
+			goto fail;
+		}
 
+		/* Verify that dir index 'upper' xattr points to upper dir */
+		err = ovl_verify_upper(index, upper, false);
+		if (err) {
+			if (err == -ESTALE) {
+				pr_warn_ratelimited("overlayfs: suspected multiply redirected dir found (upper=%pd2, origin=%pd2, index=%pd2).\n",
+						    upper, origin, index);
+			}
+			goto fail;
+		}
+	} else if (upper && d_inode(upper) != inode) {
+		goto out_dput;
+	}
 out:
 	kfree(name.name);
 	return index;
@@ -572,16 +770,25 @@ int ovl_path_next(int idx, struct dentry *dentry, struct path *path)
 	return (idx < oe->numlower) ? idx + 1 : -1;
 }
 
-static int ovl_find_layer(struct ovl_fs *ofs, struct ovl_path *path)
+/* Fix missing 'origin' xattr */
+static int ovl_fix_origin(struct dentry *dentry, struct dentry *lower,
+			  struct dentry *upper)
 {
-	int i;
+	int err;
 
-	for (i = 0; i < ofs->numlower; i++) {
-		if (ofs->lower_layers[i].mnt == path->layer->mnt)
-			break;
-	}
+	if (ovl_check_origin_xattr(upper))
+		return 0;
+
+	err = ovl_want_write(dentry);
+	if (err)
+		return err;
+
+	err = ovl_set_origin(dentry, lower, upper);
+	if (!err)
+		err = ovl_set_impure(dentry->d_parent, upper->d_parent);
 
-	return i;
+	ovl_drop_write(dentry);
+	return err;
 }
 
 struct dentry *ovl_lookup(struct inode *dir, struct dentry *dentry,
@@ -594,6 +801,7 @@ struct dentry *ovl_lookup(struct inode *dir, struct dentry *dentry,
 	struct ovl_entry *roe = dentry->d_sb->s_root->d_fsdata;
 	struct ovl_path *stack = NULL;
 	struct dentry *upperdir, *upperdentry = NULL;
+	struct dentry *origin = NULL;
 	struct dentry *index = NULL;
 	unsigned int ctr = 0;
 	struct inode *inode = NULL;
@@ -638,8 +846,7 @@ struct dentry *ovl_lookup(struct inode *dir, struct dentry *dentry,
 			 * number - it's the same as if we held a reference
 			 * to a dentry in lower layer that was moved under us.
 			 */
-			err = ovl_check_origin(upperdentry, roe->lowerstack,
-					       roe->numlower, &stack, &ctr);
+			err = ovl_check_origin(ofs, upperdentry, &stack, &ctr);
 			if (err)
 				goto out_put_upper;
 		}
@@ -674,6 +881,34 @@ struct dentry *ovl_lookup(struct inode *dir, struct dentry *dentry,
 		if (!this)
 			continue;
 
+		/*
+		 * If no origin fh is stored in upper of a merge dir, store fh
+		 * of lower dir and set upper parent "impure".
+		 */
+		if (upperdentry && !ctr && !ofs->noxattr) {
+			err = ovl_fix_origin(dentry, this, upperdentry);
+			if (err) {
+				dput(this);
+				goto out_put;
+			}
+		}
+
+		/*
+		 * When "verify_lower" feature is enabled, do not merge with a
+		 * lower dir that does not match a stored origin xattr. In any
+		 * case, only verified origin is used for index lookup.
+		 */
+		if (upperdentry && !ctr && ovl_verify_lower(dentry->d_sb)) {
+			err = ovl_verify_origin(upperdentry, this, false);
+			if (err) {
+				dput(this);
+				break;
+			}
+
+			/* Bless lower dir as verified origin */
+			origin = this;
+		}
+
 		stack[ctr].dentry = this;
 		stack[ctr].layer = lower.layer;
 		ctr++;
@@ -693,25 +928,30 @@ struct dentry *ovl_lookup(struct inode *dir, struct dentry *dentry,
 		 */
 		err = -EPERM;
 		if (d.redirect && !ofs->config.redirect_follow) {
-			pr_warn_ratelimited("overlay: refusing to follow redirect for (%pd2)\n", dentry);
+			pr_warn_ratelimited("overlayfs: refusing to follow redirect for (%pd2)\n",
+					    dentry);
 			goto out_put;
 		}
 
 		if (d.redirect && d.redirect[0] == '/' && poe != roe) {
 			poe = roe;
-
 			/* Find the current layer on the root dentry */
-			i = ovl_find_layer(ofs, &lower);
-			if (WARN_ON(i == ofs->numlower))
-				break;
+			i = lower.layer->idx - 1;
 		}
 	}
 
-	/* Lookup index by lower inode and verify it matches upper inode */
-	if (ctr && !d.is_dir && ovl_indexdir(dentry->d_sb)) {
-		struct dentry *origin = stack[0].dentry;
+	/*
+	 * Lookup index by lower inode and verify it matches upper inode.
+	 * We only trust dir index if we verified that lower dir matches
+	 * origin, otherwise dir index entries may be inconsistent and we
+	 * ignore them. Always lookup index of non-dir and non-upper.
+	 */
+	if (ctr && (!upperdentry || !d.is_dir))
+		origin = stack[0].dentry;
 
-		index = ovl_lookup_index(dentry, upperdentry, origin);
+	if (origin && ovl_indexdir(dentry->d_sb) &&
+	    (!d.is_dir || ovl_index_all(dentry->d_sb))) {
+		index = ovl_lookup_index(ofs, upperdentry, origin, true);
 		if (IS_ERR(index)) {
 			err = PTR_ERR(index);
 			index = NULL;
@@ -724,17 +964,22 @@ struct dentry *ovl_lookup(struct inode *dir, struct dentry *dentry,
 	if (!oe)
 		goto out_put;
 
-	oe->opaque = upperopaque;
 	memcpy(oe->lowerstack, stack, sizeof(struct ovl_path) * ctr);
 	dentry->d_fsdata = oe;
 
+	if (upperopaque)
+		ovl_dentry_set_opaque(dentry);
+
 	if (upperdentry)
 		ovl_dentry_set_upper_alias(dentry);
 	else if (index)
 		upperdentry = dget(index);
 
 	if (upperdentry || ctr) {
-		inode = ovl_get_inode(dentry, upperdentry, index);
+		if (ctr)
+			origin = stack[0].dentry;
+		inode = ovl_get_inode(dentry->d_sb, upperdentry, origin, index,
+				      ctr);
 		err = PTR_ERR(inode);
 		if (IS_ERR(inode))
 			goto out_free_oe;
@@ -748,9 +993,7 @@ struct dentry *ovl_lookup(struct inode *dir, struct dentry *dentry,
 	dput(index);
 	kfree(stack);
 	kfree(d.redirect);
-	d_add(dentry, inode);
-
-	return NULL;
+	return d_splice_alias(inode, dentry);
 
 out_free_oe:
 	dentry->d_fsdata = NULL;
@@ -771,9 +1014,9 @@ out:
 
 bool ovl_lower_positive(struct dentry *dentry)
 {
-	struct ovl_entry *oe = dentry->d_fsdata;
 	struct ovl_entry *poe = dentry->d_parent->d_fsdata;
 	const struct qstr *name = &dentry->d_name;
+	const struct cred *old_cred;
 	unsigned int i;
 	bool positive = false;
 	bool done = false;
@@ -783,12 +1026,13 @@ bool ovl_lower_positive(struct dentry *dentry)
 	 * whiteout.
 	 */
 	if (!dentry->d_inode)
-		return oe->opaque;
+		return ovl_dentry_is_opaque(dentry);
 
 	/* Negative upper -> positive lower */
 	if (!ovl_dentry_upper(dentry))
 		return true;
 
+	old_cred = ovl_override_creds(dentry->d_sb);
 	/* Positive upper -> have to look up lower to see whether it exists */
 	for (i = 0; !done && !positive && i < poe->numlower; i++) {
 		struct dentry *this;
@@ -818,6 +1062,7 @@ bool ovl_lower_positive(struct dentry *dentry)
 			dput(this);
 		}
 	}
+	revert_creds(old_cred);
 
 	return positive;
 }
diff --git a/fs/overlayfs/overlayfs.h b/fs/overlayfs/overlayfs.h
index b489099..0df25a9 100644
--- a/fs/overlayfs/overlayfs.h
+++ b/fs/overlayfs/overlayfs.h
@@ -27,8 +27,9 @@ enum ovl_path_type {
 #define OVL_XATTR_ORIGIN OVL_XATTR_PREFIX "origin"
 #define OVL_XATTR_IMPURE OVL_XATTR_PREFIX "impure"
 #define OVL_XATTR_NLINK OVL_XATTR_PREFIX "nlink"
+#define OVL_XATTR_UPPER OVL_XATTR_PREFIX "upper"
 
-enum ovl_flag {
+enum ovl_inode_flag {
 	/* Pure upper dir that may contain non pure upper entries */
 	OVL_IMPURE,
 	/* Non-merge dir that may contain whiteout entries */
@@ -36,6 +37,11 @@ enum ovl_flag {
 	OVL_INDEX,
 };
 
+enum ovl_entry_flag {
+	OVL_E_UPPER_ALIAS,
+	OVL_E_OPAQUE,
+};
+
 /*
  * The tuple (fh,uuid) is a universal unique identifier for a copy up origin,
  * where:
@@ -62,6 +68,9 @@ enum ovl_flag {
 #error Endianness not defined
 #endif
 
+/* The type returned by overlay exportfs ops when encoding an ovl_fh handle */
+#define OVL_FILEID	0xfb
+
 /* On-disk and in-memeory format for redirect by file handle */
 struct ovl_fh {
 	u8 version;	/* 0 */
@@ -194,6 +203,8 @@ const struct cred *ovl_override_creds(struct super_block *sb);
 struct super_block *ovl_same_sb(struct super_block *sb);
 bool ovl_can_decode_fh(struct super_block *sb);
 struct dentry *ovl_indexdir(struct super_block *sb);
+bool ovl_index_all(struct super_block *sb);
+bool ovl_verify_lower(struct super_block *sb);
 struct ovl_entry *ovl_alloc_entry(unsigned int numlower);
 bool ovl_dentry_remote(struct dentry *dentry);
 bool ovl_dentry_weird(struct dentry *dentry);
@@ -210,6 +221,9 @@ struct inode *ovl_inode_lower(struct inode *inode);
 struct inode *ovl_inode_real(struct inode *inode);
 struct ovl_dir_cache *ovl_dir_cache(struct inode *inode);
 void ovl_set_dir_cache(struct inode *inode, struct ovl_dir_cache *cache);
+void ovl_dentry_set_flag(unsigned long flag, struct dentry *dentry);
+void ovl_dentry_clear_flag(unsigned long flag, struct dentry *dentry);
+bool ovl_dentry_test_flag(unsigned long flag, struct dentry *dentry);
 bool ovl_dentry_is_opaque(struct dentry *dentry);
 bool ovl_dentry_is_whiteout(struct dentry *dentry);
 void ovl_dentry_set_opaque(struct dentry *dentry);
@@ -238,6 +252,7 @@ void ovl_clear_flag(unsigned long flag, struct inode *inode);
 bool ovl_test_flag(unsigned long flag, struct inode *inode);
 bool ovl_inuse_trylock(struct dentry *dentry);
 void ovl_inuse_unlock(struct dentry *dentry);
+bool ovl_need_index(struct dentry *dentry);
 int ovl_nlink_start(struct dentry *dentry, bool *locked);
 void ovl_nlink_end(struct dentry *dentry, bool locked);
 int ovl_lock_rename_workdir(struct dentry *workdir, struct dentry *upperdir);
@@ -249,15 +264,35 @@ static inline bool ovl_is_impuredir(struct dentry *dentry)
 
 
 /* namei.c */
-int ovl_verify_origin(struct dentry *dentry, struct dentry *origin,
-		      bool is_upper, bool set);
-int ovl_verify_index(struct dentry *index, struct ovl_path *lower,
-		     unsigned int numlower);
+int ovl_check_fh_len(struct ovl_fh *fh, int fh_len);
+struct dentry *ovl_decode_fh(struct ovl_fh *fh, struct vfsmount *mnt);
+int ovl_check_origin_fh(struct ovl_fs *ofs, struct ovl_fh *fh,
+			struct dentry *upperdentry, struct ovl_path **stackp);
+int ovl_verify_set_fh(struct dentry *dentry, const char *name,
+		      struct dentry *real, bool is_upper, bool set);
+struct dentry *ovl_index_upper(struct ovl_fs *ofs, struct dentry *index);
+int ovl_verify_index(struct ovl_fs *ofs, struct dentry *index);
 int ovl_get_index_name(struct dentry *origin, struct qstr *name);
+struct dentry *ovl_get_index_fh(struct ovl_fs *ofs, struct ovl_fh *fh);
+struct dentry *ovl_lookup_index(struct ovl_fs *ofs, struct dentry *upper,
+				struct dentry *origin, bool verify);
 int ovl_path_next(int idx, struct dentry *dentry, struct path *path);
-struct dentry *ovl_lookup(struct inode *dir, struct dentry *dentry, unsigned int flags);
+struct dentry *ovl_lookup(struct inode *dir, struct dentry *dentry,
+			  unsigned int flags);
 bool ovl_lower_positive(struct dentry *dentry);
 
+static inline int ovl_verify_origin(struct dentry *upper,
+				    struct dentry *origin, bool set)
+{
+	return ovl_verify_set_fh(upper, OVL_XATTR_ORIGIN, origin, false, set);
+}
+
+static inline int ovl_verify_upper(struct dentry *index,
+				    struct dentry *upper, bool set)
+{
+	return ovl_verify_set_fh(index, OVL_XATTR_UPPER, upper, true, set);
+}
+
 /* readdir.c */
 extern const struct file_operations ovl_dir_operations;
 int ovl_check_empty_dir(struct dentry *dentry, struct list_head *list);
@@ -267,8 +302,7 @@ void ovl_dir_cache_free(struct inode *inode);
 int ovl_check_d_type_supported(struct path *realpath);
 void ovl_workdir_cleanup(struct inode *dir, struct vfsmount *mnt,
 			 struct dentry *dentry, int level);
-int ovl_indexdir_cleanup(struct dentry *dentry, struct vfsmount *mnt,
-			 struct ovl_path *lower, unsigned int numlower);
+int ovl_indexdir_cleanup(struct ovl_fs *ofs);
 
 /* inode.c */
 int ovl_set_nlink_upper(struct dentry *dentry);
@@ -291,8 +325,11 @@ int ovl_update_time(struct inode *inode, struct timespec *ts, int flags);
 bool ovl_is_private_xattr(const char *name);
 
 struct inode *ovl_new_inode(struct super_block *sb, umode_t mode, dev_t rdev);
-struct inode *ovl_get_inode(struct dentry *dentry, struct dentry *upperdentry,
-			    struct dentry *index);
+struct inode *ovl_lookup_inode(struct super_block *sb, struct dentry *real,
+			       bool is_upper);
+struct inode *ovl_get_inode(struct super_block *sb, struct dentry *upperdentry,
+			    struct dentry *lowerdentry, struct dentry *index,
+			    unsigned int numlower);
 static inline void ovl_copyattr(struct inode *from, struct inode *to)
 {
 	to->i_uid = from->i_uid;
@@ -306,6 +343,8 @@ static inline void ovl_copyattr(struct inode *from, struct inode *to)
 /* dir.c */
 extern const struct inode_operations ovl_dir_inode_operations;
 struct dentry *ovl_lookup_temp(struct dentry *workdir);
+int ovl_cleanup_and_whiteout(struct dentry *workdir, struct inode *dir,
+			     struct dentry *dentry);
 struct cattr {
 	dev_t rdev;
 	umode_t mode;
@@ -321,4 +360,9 @@ int ovl_copy_up(struct dentry *dentry);
 int ovl_copy_up_flags(struct dentry *dentry, int flags);
 int ovl_copy_xattr(struct dentry *old, struct dentry *new);
 int ovl_set_attr(struct dentry *upper, struct kstat *stat);
-struct ovl_fh *ovl_encode_fh(struct dentry *lower, bool is_upper);
+struct ovl_fh *ovl_encode_fh(struct dentry *real, bool is_upper);
+int ovl_set_origin(struct dentry *dentry, struct dentry *lower,
+		   struct dentry *upper);
+
+/* export.c */
+extern const struct export_operations ovl_export_operations;
diff --git a/fs/overlayfs/ovl_entry.h b/fs/overlayfs/ovl_entry.h
index 9d0bc03..bfef6ed 100644
--- a/fs/overlayfs/ovl_entry.h
+++ b/fs/overlayfs/ovl_entry.h
@@ -17,11 +17,14 @@ struct ovl_config {
 	bool redirect_follow;
 	const char *redirect_mode;
 	bool index;
+	bool nfs_export;
 };
 
 struct ovl_layer {
 	struct vfsmount *mnt;
 	dev_t pseudo_dev;
+	/* Index of this layer in fs root (upper == 0) */
+	int idx;
 };
 
 struct ovl_path {
@@ -58,8 +61,7 @@ struct ovl_fs {
 struct ovl_entry {
 	union {
 		struct {
-			unsigned long has_upper;
-			bool opaque;
+			unsigned long flags;
 		};
 		struct rcu_head rcu;
 	};
@@ -69,6 +71,11 @@ struct ovl_entry {
 
 struct ovl_entry *ovl_alloc_entry(unsigned int numlower);
 
+static inline struct ovl_entry *OVL_E(struct dentry *dentry)
+{
+	return (struct ovl_entry *) dentry->d_fsdata;
+}
+
 struct ovl_inode {
 	struct ovl_dir_cache *cache;
 	const char *redirect;
diff --git a/fs/overlayfs/readdir.c b/fs/overlayfs/readdir.c
index 8c98578..c11f5c0 100644
--- a/fs/overlayfs/readdir.c
+++ b/fs/overlayfs/readdir.c
@@ -593,8 +593,15 @@ static struct ovl_dir_cache *ovl_cache_get_impure(struct path *path)
 		return ERR_PTR(res);
 	}
 	if (list_empty(&cache->entries)) {
-		/* Good oportunity to get rid of an unnecessary "impure" flag */
-		ovl_do_removexattr(ovl_dentry_upper(dentry), OVL_XATTR_IMPURE);
+		/*
+		 * A good opportunity to get rid of an unneeded "impure" flag.
+		 * Removing the "impure" xattr is best effort.
+		 */
+		if (!ovl_want_write(dentry)) {
+			ovl_do_removexattr(ovl_dentry_upper(dentry),
+					   OVL_XATTR_IMPURE);
+			ovl_drop_write(dentry);
+		}
 		ovl_clear_flag(OVL_IMPURE, d_inode(dentry));
 		kfree(cache);
 		return NULL;
@@ -769,10 +776,14 @@ static int ovl_dir_fsync(struct file *file, loff_t start, loff_t end,
 	struct dentry *dentry = file->f_path.dentry;
 	struct file *realfile = od->realfile;
 
+	/* Nothing to sync for lower */
+	if (!OVL_TYPE_UPPER(ovl_path_type(dentry)))
+		return 0;
+
 	/*
 	 * Need to check if we started out being a lower dir, but got copied up
 	 */
-	if (!od->is_upper && OVL_TYPE_UPPER(ovl_path_type(dentry))) {
+	if (!od->is_upper) {
 		struct inode *inode = file_inode(file);
 
 		realfile = READ_ONCE(od->upperfile);
@@ -858,8 +869,11 @@ int ovl_check_empty_dir(struct dentry *dentry, struct list_head *list)
 	int err;
 	struct ovl_cache_entry *p, *n;
 	struct rb_root root = RB_ROOT;
+	const struct cred *old_cred;
 
+	old_cred = ovl_override_creds(dentry->d_sb);
 	err = ovl_dir_read_merged(dentry, list, &root);
+	revert_creds(old_cred);
 	if (err)
 		return err;
 
@@ -1016,13 +1030,13 @@ void ovl_workdir_cleanup(struct inode *dir, struct vfsmount *mnt,
 	}
 }
 
-int ovl_indexdir_cleanup(struct dentry *dentry, struct vfsmount *mnt,
-			 struct ovl_path *lower, unsigned int numlower)
+int ovl_indexdir_cleanup(struct ovl_fs *ofs)
 {
 	int err;
+	struct dentry *indexdir = ofs->indexdir;
 	struct dentry *index = NULL;
-	struct inode *dir = dentry->d_inode;
-	struct path path = { .mnt = mnt, .dentry = dentry };
+	struct inode *dir = indexdir->d_inode;
+	struct path path = { .mnt = ofs->upper_mnt, .dentry = indexdir };
 	LIST_HEAD(list);
 	struct rb_root root = RB_ROOT;
 	struct ovl_cache_entry *p;
@@ -1046,19 +1060,40 @@ int ovl_indexdir_cleanup(struct dentry *dentry, struct vfsmount *mnt,
 			if (p->len == 2 && p->name[1] == '.')
 				continue;
 		}
-		index = lookup_one_len(p->name, dentry, p->len);
+		index = lookup_one_len(p->name, indexdir, p->len);
 		if (IS_ERR(index)) {
 			err = PTR_ERR(index);
 			index = NULL;
 			break;
 		}
-		err = ovl_verify_index(index, lower, numlower);
-		/* Cleanup stale and orphan index entries */
-		if (err && (err == -ESTALE || err == -ENOENT))
+		err = ovl_verify_index(ofs, index);
+		if (!err) {
+			goto next;
+		} else if (err == -ESTALE) {
+			/* Cleanup stale index entries */
+			err = ovl_cleanup(dir, index);
+		} else if (err != -ENOENT) {
+			/*
+			 * Abort mount to avoid corrupting the index if
+			 * an incompatible index entry was found or on out
+			 * of memory.
+			 */
+			break;
+		} else if (ofs->config.nfs_export) {
+			/*
+			 * Whiteout orphan index to block future open by
+			 * handle after overlay nlink dropped to zero.
+			 */
+			err = ovl_cleanup_and_whiteout(indexdir, dir, index);
+		} else {
+			/* Cleanup orphan index entries */
 			err = ovl_cleanup(dir, index);
+		}
+
 		if (err)
 			break;
 
+next:
 		dput(index);
 		index = NULL;
 	}
diff --git a/fs/overlayfs/super.c b/fs/overlayfs/super.c
index 76440fe..9ee37c7 100644
--- a/fs/overlayfs/super.c
+++ b/fs/overlayfs/super.c
@@ -45,6 +45,11 @@ module_param_named(index, ovl_index_def, bool, 0644);
 MODULE_PARM_DESC(ovl_index_def,
 		 "Default to on or off for the inodes index feature");
 
+static bool ovl_nfs_export_def = IS_ENABLED(CONFIG_OVERLAY_FS_NFS_EXPORT);
+module_param_named(nfs_export, ovl_nfs_export_def, bool, 0644);
+MODULE_PARM_DESC(ovl_nfs_export_def,
+		 "Default to on or off for the NFS export feature");
+
 static void ovl_entry_stack_free(struct ovl_entry *oe)
 {
 	unsigned int i;
@@ -211,6 +216,7 @@ static void ovl_destroy_inode(struct inode *inode)
 	struct ovl_inode *oi = OVL_I(inode);
 
 	dput(oi->__upperdentry);
+	iput(oi->lower);
 	kfree(oi->redirect);
 	ovl_dir_cache_free(inode);
 	mutex_destroy(&oi->lock);
@@ -341,6 +347,9 @@ static int ovl_show_options(struct seq_file *m, struct dentry *dentry)
 		seq_printf(m, ",redirect_dir=%s", ofs->config.redirect_mode);
 	if (ofs->config.index != ovl_index_def)
 		seq_printf(m, ",index=%s", ofs->config.index ? "on" : "off");
+	if (ofs->config.nfs_export != ovl_nfs_export_def)
+		seq_printf(m, ",nfs_export=%s", ofs->config.nfs_export ?
+						"on" : "off");
 	return 0;
 }
 
@@ -373,6 +382,8 @@ enum {
 	OPT_REDIRECT_DIR,
 	OPT_INDEX_ON,
 	OPT_INDEX_OFF,
+	OPT_NFS_EXPORT_ON,
+	OPT_NFS_EXPORT_OFF,
 	OPT_ERR,
 };
 
@@ -384,6 +395,8 @@ static const match_table_t ovl_tokens = {
 	{OPT_REDIRECT_DIR,		"redirect_dir=%s"},
 	{OPT_INDEX_ON,			"index=on"},
 	{OPT_INDEX_OFF,			"index=off"},
+	{OPT_NFS_EXPORT_ON,		"nfs_export=on"},
+	{OPT_NFS_EXPORT_OFF,		"nfs_export=off"},
 	{OPT_ERR,			NULL}
 };
 
@@ -490,6 +503,14 @@ static int ovl_parse_opt(char *opt, struct ovl_config *config)
 			config->index = false;
 			break;
 
+		case OPT_NFS_EXPORT_ON:
+			config->nfs_export = true;
+			break;
+
+		case OPT_NFS_EXPORT_OFF:
+			config->nfs_export = false;
+			break;
+
 		default:
 			pr_err("overlayfs: unrecognized mount option \"%s\" or missing value\n", p);
 			return -EINVAL;
@@ -520,10 +541,6 @@ static struct dentry *ovl_workdir_create(struct ovl_fs *ofs,
 	bool retried = false;
 	bool locked = false;
 
-	err = mnt_want_write(mnt);
-	if (err)
-		goto out_err;
-
 	inode_lock_nested(dir, I_MUTEX_PARENT);
 	locked = true;
 
@@ -588,7 +605,6 @@ retry:
 		goto out_err;
 	}
 out_unlock:
-	mnt_drop_write(mnt);
 	if (locked)
 		inode_unlock(dir);
 
@@ -700,12 +716,16 @@ static int ovl_lower_dir(const char *name, struct path *path,
 		*remote = true;
 
 	/*
-	 * The inodes index feature needs to encode and decode file
-	 * handles, so it requires that all layers support them.
+	 * The inodes index feature and NFS export need to encode and decode
+	 * file handles, so they require that all layers support them.
 	 */
-	if (ofs->config.index && !ovl_can_decode_fh(path->dentry->d_sb)) {
+	if ((ofs->config.nfs_export ||
+	     (ofs->config.index && ofs->config.upperdir)) &&
+	    !ovl_can_decode_fh(path->dentry->d_sb)) {
 		ofs->config.index = false;
-		pr_warn("overlayfs: fs on '%s' does not support file handles, falling back to index=off.\n", name);
+		ofs->config.nfs_export = false;
+		pr_warn("overlayfs: fs on '%s' does not support file handles, falling back to index=off,nfs_export=off.\n",
+			name);
 	}
 
 	return 0;
@@ -929,12 +949,17 @@ out:
 
 static int ovl_make_workdir(struct ovl_fs *ofs, struct path *workpath)
 {
+	struct vfsmount *mnt = ofs->upper_mnt;
 	struct dentry *temp;
 	int err;
 
+	err = mnt_want_write(mnt);
+	if (err)
+		return err;
+
 	ofs->workdir = ovl_workdir_create(ofs, OVL_WORKDIR_NAME, false);
 	if (!ofs->workdir)
-		return 0;
+		goto out;
 
 	/*
 	 * Upper should support d_type, else whiteouts are visible.  Given
@@ -944,7 +969,7 @@ static int ovl_make_workdir(struct ovl_fs *ofs, struct path *workpath)
 	 */
 	err = ovl_check_d_type_supported(workpath);
 	if (err < 0)
-		return err;
+		goto out;
 
 	/*
 	 * We allowed this configuration and don't want to break users over
@@ -967,7 +992,9 @@ static int ovl_make_workdir(struct ovl_fs *ofs, struct path *workpath)
 	err = ovl_do_setxattr(ofs->workdir, OVL_XATTR_OPAQUE, "0", 1, 0);
 	if (err) {
 		ofs->noxattr = true;
-		pr_warn("overlayfs: upper fs does not support xattr.\n");
+		ofs->config.index = false;
+		pr_warn("overlayfs: upper fs does not support xattr, falling back to index=off.\n");
+		err = 0;
 	} else {
 		vfs_removexattr(ofs->workdir, OVL_XATTR_OPAQUE);
 	}
@@ -979,7 +1006,15 @@ static int ovl_make_workdir(struct ovl_fs *ofs, struct path *workpath)
 		pr_warn("overlayfs: upper fs does not support file handles, falling back to index=off.\n");
 	}
 
-	return 0;
+	/* NFS export of r/w mount depends on index */
+	if (ofs->config.nfs_export && !ofs->config.index) {
+		pr_warn("overlayfs: NFS export requires \"index=on\", falling back to nfs_export=off.\n");
+		ofs->config.nfs_export = false;
+	}
+
+out:
+	mnt_drop_write(mnt);
+	return err;
 }
 
 static int ovl_get_workdir(struct ovl_fs *ofs, struct path *upperpath)
@@ -1026,11 +1061,16 @@ out:
 static int ovl_get_indexdir(struct ovl_fs *ofs, struct ovl_entry *oe,
 			    struct path *upperpath)
 {
+	struct vfsmount *mnt = ofs->upper_mnt;
 	int err;
 
+	err = mnt_want_write(mnt);
+	if (err)
+		return err;
+
 	/* Verify lower root is upper root origin */
 	err = ovl_verify_origin(upperpath->dentry, oe->lowerstack[0].dentry,
-				false, true);
+				true);
 	if (err) {
 		pr_err("overlayfs: failed to verify upper root origin\n");
 		goto out;
@@ -1038,23 +1078,33 @@ static int ovl_get_indexdir(struct ovl_fs *ofs, struct ovl_entry *oe,
 
 	ofs->indexdir = ovl_workdir_create(ofs, OVL_INDEXDIR_NAME, true);
 	if (ofs->indexdir) {
-		/* Verify upper root is index dir origin */
-		err = ovl_verify_origin(ofs->indexdir, upperpath->dentry,
-					true, true);
+		/*
+		 * Verify upper root is exclusively associated with index dir.
+		 * Older kernels stored upper fh in "trusted.overlay.origin"
+		 * xattr. If that xattr exists, verify that it is a match to
+		 * upper dir file handle. In any case, verify or set xattr
+		 * "trusted.overlay.upper" to indicate that index may have
+		 * directory entries.
+		 */
+		if (ovl_check_origin_xattr(ofs->indexdir)) {
+			err = ovl_verify_set_fh(ofs->indexdir, OVL_XATTR_ORIGIN,
+						upperpath->dentry, true, false);
+			if (err)
+				pr_err("overlayfs: failed to verify index dir 'origin' xattr\n");
+		}
+		err = ovl_verify_upper(ofs->indexdir, upperpath->dentry, true);
 		if (err)
-			pr_err("overlayfs: failed to verify index dir origin\n");
+			pr_err("overlayfs: failed to verify index dir 'upper' xattr\n");
 
 		/* Cleanup bad/stale/orphan index entries */
 		if (!err)
-			err = ovl_indexdir_cleanup(ofs->indexdir,
-						   ofs->upper_mnt,
-						   oe->lowerstack,
-						   oe->numlower);
+			err = ovl_indexdir_cleanup(ofs);
 	}
 	if (err || !ofs->indexdir)
 		pr_warn("overlayfs: try deleting index dir or mounting with '-o index=off' to disable inodes index.\n");
 
 out:
+	mnt_drop_write(mnt);
 	return err;
 }
 
@@ -1094,6 +1144,7 @@ static int ovl_get_lower_layers(struct ovl_fs *ofs, struct path *stack,
 
 		ofs->lower_layers[ofs->numlower].mnt = mnt;
 		ofs->lower_layers[ofs->numlower].pseudo_dev = dev;
+		ofs->lower_layers[ofs->numlower].idx = i + 1;
 		ofs->numlower++;
 
 		/* Check if all lower layers are on same sb */
@@ -1131,6 +1182,10 @@ static struct ovl_entry *ovl_get_lowerstack(struct super_block *sb,
 	} else if (!ofs->config.upperdir && stacklen == 1) {
 		pr_err("overlayfs: at least 2 lowerdir are needed while upperdir nonexistent\n");
 		goto out_err;
+	} else if (!ofs->config.upperdir && ofs->config.nfs_export &&
+		   ofs->config.redirect_follow) {
+		pr_warn("overlayfs: NFS export requires \"redirect_dir=nofollow\" on non-upper mount, falling back to nfs_export=off.\n");
+		ofs->config.nfs_export = false;
 	}
 
 	err = -ENOMEM;
@@ -1207,6 +1262,7 @@ static int ovl_fill_super(struct super_block *sb, void *data, int silent)
 		goto out_err;
 
 	ofs->config.index = ovl_index_def;
+	ofs->config.nfs_export = ovl_nfs_export_def;
 	err = ovl_parse_opt((char *) data, &ofs->config);
 	if (err)
 		goto out_err;
@@ -1257,13 +1313,26 @@ static int ovl_fill_super(struct super_block *sb, void *data, int silent)
 		if (err)
 			goto out_free_oe;
 
-		if (!ofs->indexdir)
+		/* Force r/o mount with no index dir */
+		if (!ofs->indexdir) {
+			dput(ofs->workdir);
+			ofs->workdir = NULL;
 			sb->s_flags |= SB_RDONLY;
+		}
+
 	}
 
-	/* Show index=off/on in /proc/mounts for any of the reasons above */
-	if (!ofs->indexdir)
+	/* Show index=off in /proc/mounts for forced r/o mount */
+	if (!ofs->indexdir) {
 		ofs->config.index = false;
+		if (ofs->upper_mnt && ofs->config.nfs_export) {
+			pr_warn("overlayfs: NFS export requires an index dir, falling back to nfs_export=off.\n");
+			ofs->config.nfs_export = false;
+		}
+	}
+
+	if (ofs->config.nfs_export)
+		sb->s_export_op = &ovl_export_operations;
 
 	/* Never override disk quota limits or use reserved space */
 	cap_lower(cred->cap_effective, CAP_SYS_RESOURCE);
@@ -1279,15 +1348,15 @@ static int ovl_fill_super(struct super_block *sb, void *data, int silent)
 	if (!root_dentry)
 		goto out_free_oe;
 
+	root_dentry->d_fsdata = oe;
+
 	mntput(upperpath.mnt);
 	if (upperpath.dentry) {
-		oe->has_upper = true;
+		ovl_dentry_set_upper_alias(root_dentry);
 		if (ovl_is_impuredir(upperpath.dentry))
 			ovl_set_flag(OVL_IMPURE, d_inode(root_dentry));
 	}
 
-	root_dentry->d_fsdata = oe;
-
 	/* Root is always merge -> can have whiteouts */
 	ovl_set_flag(OVL_WHITEOUTS, d_inode(root_dentry));
 	ovl_inode_init(d_inode(root_dentry), upperpath.dentry,
diff --git a/fs/overlayfs/util.c b/fs/overlayfs/util.c
index d6bb1c9..930784a 100644
--- a/fs/overlayfs/util.c
+++ b/fs/overlayfs/util.c
@@ -63,6 +63,22 @@ struct dentry *ovl_indexdir(struct super_block *sb)
 	return ofs->indexdir;
 }
 
+/* Index all files on copy up. For now only enabled for NFS export */
+bool ovl_index_all(struct super_block *sb)
+{
+	struct ovl_fs *ofs = sb->s_fs_info;
+
+	return ofs->config.nfs_export && ofs->config.index;
+}
+
+/* Verify lower origin on lookup. For now only enabled for NFS export */
+bool ovl_verify_lower(struct super_block *sb)
+{
+	struct ovl_fs *ofs = sb->s_fs_info;
+
+	return ofs->config.nfs_export && ofs->config.index;
+}
+
 struct ovl_entry *ovl_alloc_entry(unsigned int numlower)
 {
 	size_t size = offsetof(struct ovl_entry, lowerstack[numlower]);
@@ -194,10 +210,24 @@ void ovl_set_dir_cache(struct inode *inode, struct ovl_dir_cache *cache)
 	OVL_I(inode)->cache = cache;
 }
 
+void ovl_dentry_set_flag(unsigned long flag, struct dentry *dentry)
+{
+	set_bit(flag, &OVL_E(dentry)->flags);
+}
+
+void ovl_dentry_clear_flag(unsigned long flag, struct dentry *dentry)
+{
+	clear_bit(flag, &OVL_E(dentry)->flags);
+}
+
+bool ovl_dentry_test_flag(unsigned long flag, struct dentry *dentry)
+{
+	return test_bit(flag, &OVL_E(dentry)->flags);
+}
+
 bool ovl_dentry_is_opaque(struct dentry *dentry)
 {
-	struct ovl_entry *oe = dentry->d_fsdata;
-	return oe->opaque;
+	return ovl_dentry_test_flag(OVL_E_OPAQUE, dentry);
 }
 
 bool ovl_dentry_is_whiteout(struct dentry *dentry)
@@ -207,28 +237,23 @@ bool ovl_dentry_is_whiteout(struct dentry *dentry)
 
 void ovl_dentry_set_opaque(struct dentry *dentry)
 {
-	struct ovl_entry *oe = dentry->d_fsdata;
-
-	oe->opaque = true;
+	ovl_dentry_set_flag(OVL_E_OPAQUE, dentry);
 }
 
 /*
- * For hard links it's possible for ovl_dentry_upper() to return positive, while
- * there's no actual upper alias for the inode.  Copy up code needs to know
- * about the existence of the upper alias, so it can't use ovl_dentry_upper().
+ * For hard links and decoded file handles, it's possible for ovl_dentry_upper()
+ * to return positive, while there's no actual upper alias for the inode.
+ * Copy up code needs to know about the existence of the upper alias, so it
+ * can't use ovl_dentry_upper().
  */
 bool ovl_dentry_has_upper_alias(struct dentry *dentry)
 {
-	struct ovl_entry *oe = dentry->d_fsdata;
-
-	return oe->has_upper;
+	return ovl_dentry_test_flag(OVL_E_UPPER_ALIAS, dentry);
 }
 
 void ovl_dentry_set_upper_alias(struct dentry *dentry)
 {
-	struct ovl_entry *oe = dentry->d_fsdata;
-
-	oe->has_upper = true;
+	ovl_dentry_set_flag(OVL_E_UPPER_ALIAS, dentry);
 }
 
 bool ovl_redirect_dir(struct super_block *sb)
@@ -257,7 +282,7 @@ void ovl_inode_init(struct inode *inode, struct dentry *upperdentry,
 	if (upperdentry)
 		OVL_I(inode)->__upperdentry = upperdentry;
 	if (lowerdentry)
-		OVL_I(inode)->lower = d_inode(lowerdentry);
+		OVL_I(inode)->lower = igrab(d_inode(lowerdentry));
 
 	ovl_copyattr(d_inode(upperdentry ?: lowerdentry), inode);
 }
@@ -273,7 +298,7 @@ void ovl_inode_update(struct inode *inode, struct dentry *upperdentry)
 	 */
 	smp_wmb();
 	OVL_I(inode)->__upperdentry = upperdentry;
-	if (!S_ISDIR(upperinode->i_mode) && inode_unhashed(inode)) {
+	if (inode_unhashed(inode)) {
 		inode->i_private = upperinode;
 		__insert_inode_hash(inode, (unsigned long) upperinode);
 	}
@@ -447,10 +472,32 @@ void ovl_inuse_unlock(struct dentry *dentry)
 	}
 }
 
+/*
+ * Does this overlay dentry need to be indexed on copy up?
+ */
+bool ovl_need_index(struct dentry *dentry)
+{
+	struct dentry *lower = ovl_dentry_lower(dentry);
+
+	if (!lower || !ovl_indexdir(dentry->d_sb))
+		return false;
+
+	/* Index all files for NFS export and consistency verification */
+	if (ovl_index_all(dentry->d_sb))
+		return true;
+
+	/* Index only lower hardlinks on copy up */
+	if (!d_is_dir(lower) && d_inode(lower)->i_nlink > 1)
+		return true;
+
+	return false;
+}
+
 /* Caller must hold OVL_I(inode)->lock */
 static void ovl_cleanup_index(struct dentry *dentry)
 {
-	struct inode *dir = ovl_indexdir(dentry->d_sb)->d_inode;
+	struct dentry *indexdir = ovl_indexdir(dentry->d_sb);
+	struct inode *dir = indexdir->d_inode;
 	struct dentry *lowerdentry = ovl_dentry_lower(dentry);
 	struct dentry *upperdentry = ovl_dentry_upper(dentry);
 	struct dentry *index = NULL;
@@ -463,7 +510,7 @@ static void ovl_cleanup_index(struct dentry *dentry)
 		goto fail;
 
 	inode = d_inode(upperdentry);
-	if (inode->i_nlink != 1) {
+	if (!S_ISDIR(inode->i_mode) && inode->i_nlink != 1) {
 		pr_warn_ratelimited("overlayfs: cleanup linked index (%pd2, ino=%lu, nlink=%u)\n",
 				    upperdentry, inode->i_ino, inode->i_nlink);
 		/*
@@ -481,13 +528,17 @@ static void ovl_cleanup_index(struct dentry *dentry)
 	}
 
 	inode_lock_nested(dir, I_MUTEX_PARENT);
-	/* TODO: whiteout instead of cleanup to block future open by handle */
-	index = lookup_one_len(name.name, ovl_indexdir(dentry->d_sb), name.len);
+	index = lookup_one_len(name.name, indexdir, name.len);
 	err = PTR_ERR(index);
-	if (!IS_ERR(index))
-		err = ovl_cleanup(dir, index);
-	else
+	if (IS_ERR(index)) {
 		index = NULL;
+	} else if (ovl_index_all(dentry->d_sb)) {
+		/* Whiteout orphan index to block future open by handle */
+		err = ovl_cleanup_and_whiteout(indexdir, dir, index);
+	} else {
+		/* Cleanup orphan index entries */
+		err = ovl_cleanup(dir, index);
+	}
 
 	inode_unlock(dir);
 	if (err)
@@ -512,16 +563,16 @@ int ovl_nlink_start(struct dentry *dentry, bool *locked)
 	const struct cred *old_cred;
 	int err;
 
-	if (!d_inode(dentry) || d_is_dir(dentry))
+	if (!d_inode(dentry))
 		return 0;
 
 	/*
 	 * With inodes index is enabled, we store the union overlay nlink
-	 * in an xattr on the index inode. When whiting out lower hardlinks
+	 * in an xattr on the index inode. When whiting out an indexed lower,
 	 * we need to decrement the overlay persistent nlink, but before the
 	 * first copy up, we have no upper index inode to store the xattr.
 	 *
-	 * As a workaround, before whiteout/rename over of a lower hardlink,
+	 * As a workaround, before whiteout/rename over an indexed lower,
 	 * copy up to create the upper index. Creating the upper index will
 	 * initialize the overlay nlink, so it could be dropped if unlink
 	 * or rename succeeds.
@@ -529,8 +580,7 @@ int ovl_nlink_start(struct dentry *dentry, bool *locked)
 	 * TODO: implement metadata only index copy up when called with
 	 *       ovl_copy_up_flags(dentry, O_PATH).
 	 */
-	if (ovl_indexdir(dentry->d_sb) && !ovl_dentry_has_upper_alias(dentry) &&
-	    d_inode(ovl_dentry_lower(dentry))->i_nlink > 1) {
+	if (ovl_need_index(dentry) && !ovl_dentry_has_upper_alias(dentry)) {
 		err = ovl_copy_up(dentry);
 		if (err)
 			return err;
@@ -540,7 +590,7 @@ int ovl_nlink_start(struct dentry *dentry, bool *locked)
 	if (err)
 		return err;
 
-	if (!ovl_test_flag(OVL_INDEX, d_inode(dentry)))
+	if (d_is_dir(dentry) || !ovl_test_flag(OVL_INDEX, d_inode(dentry)))
 		goto out;
 
 	old_cred = ovl_override_creds(dentry->d_sb);
diff --git a/include/linux/dcache.h b/include/linux/dcache.h
index 65cd8ab..82a99d3 100644
--- a/include/linux/dcache.h
+++ b/include/linux/dcache.h
@@ -227,6 +227,7 @@ extern seqlock_t rename_lock;
  */
 extern void d_instantiate(struct dentry *, struct inode *);
 extern struct dentry * d_instantiate_unique(struct dentry *, struct inode *);
+extern struct dentry * d_instantiate_anon(struct dentry *, struct inode *);
 extern int d_instantiate_no_diralias(struct dentry *, struct inode *);
 extern void __d_drop(struct dentry *dentry);
 extern void d_drop(struct dentry *dentry);
@@ -235,6 +236,7 @@ extern void d_set_d_op(struct dentry *dentry, const struct dentry_operations *op
 
 /* allocate/de-allocate */
 extern struct dentry * d_alloc(struct dentry *, const struct qstr *);
+extern struct dentry * d_alloc_anon(struct super_block *);
 extern struct dentry * d_alloc_pseudo(struct super_block *, const struct qstr *);
 extern struct dentry * d_alloc_parallel(struct dentry *, const struct qstr *,
 					wait_queue_head_t *);