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+.\" Copyright (c) 1986, 1993
+.\"	The Regents of the University of California.  All rights reserved.
+.\"
+.\" Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without
+.\" modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions
+.\" are met:
+.\" 1. Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright
+.\"    notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer.
+.\" 2. Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright
+.\"    notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the
+.\"    documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution.
+.\" 3. All advertising materials mentioning features or use of this software
+.\"    must display the following acknowledgement:
+.\"	This product includes software developed by the University of
+.\"	California, Berkeley and its contributors.
+.\" 4. Neither the name of the University nor the names of its contributors
+.\"    may be used to endorse or promote products derived from this software
+.\"    without specific prior written permission.
+.\"
+.\" THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE REGENTS AND CONTRIBUTORS ``AS IS'' AND
+.\" ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE
+.\" IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE
+.\" ARE DISCLAIMED.  IN NO EVENT SHALL THE REGENTS OR CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE
+.\" FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL
+.\" DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS
+.\" OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION)
+.\" HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT
+.\" LIABILITY, OR TORT (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY
+.\" OUT OF THE USE OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF
+.\" SUCH DAMAGE.
+.\"
+.\"	@(#)1.t	8.1 (Berkeley) 6/8/93
+.\"
+.ds RH Introduction
+.NH
+Introduction
+.PP
+This paper describes the changes from the original 512 byte UNIX file
+system to the new one released with the 4.2 Berkeley Software Distribution.
+It presents the motivations for the changes,
+the methods used to effect these changes,
+the rationale behind the design decisions,
+and a description of the new implementation.
+This discussion is followed by a summary of
+the results that have been obtained,
+directions for future work,
+and the additions and changes
+that have been made to the facilities that are
+available to programmers.
+.PP
+The original UNIX system that runs on the PDP-11\(dg
+.FS
+\(dg DEC, PDP, VAX, MASSBUS, and UNIBUS are
+trademarks of Digital Equipment Corporation.
+.FE
+has simple and elegant file system facilities.  File system input/output
+is buffered by the kernel;
+there are no alignment constraints on
+data transfers and all operations are made to appear synchronous.
+All transfers to the disk are in 512 byte blocks, which can be placed
+arbitrarily within the data area of the file system.  Virtually
+no constraints other than available disk space are placed on file growth
+[Ritchie74], [Thompson78].*
+.FS
+* In practice, a file's size is constrained to be less than about
+one gigabyte.
+.FE
+.PP
+When used on the VAX-11 together with other UNIX enhancements,
+the original 512 byte UNIX file
+system is incapable of providing the data throughput rates
+that many applications require.
+For example, 
+applications
+such as VLSI design and image processing
+do a small amount of processing
+on a large quantities of data and
+need to have a high throughput from the file system.
+High throughput rates are also needed by programs
+that map files from the file system into large virtual
+address spaces.
+Paging data in and out of the file system is likely
+to occur frequently [Ferrin82b].
+This requires a file system providing
+higher bandwidth than the original 512 byte UNIX
+one that provides only about
+two percent of the maximum disk bandwidth or about
+20 kilobytes per second per arm [White80], [Smith81b].
+.PP
+Modifications have been made to the UNIX file system to improve
+its performance.
+Since the UNIX file system interface
+is well understood and not inherently slow,
+this development retained the abstraction and simply changed
+the underlying implementation to increase its throughput.
+Consequently, users of the system have not been faced with
+massive software conversion.
+.PP
+Problems with file system performance have been dealt with
+extensively in the literature; see [Smith81a] for a survey.
+Previous work to improve the UNIX file system performance has been
+done by [Ferrin82a].
+The UNIX operating system drew many of its ideas from Multics,
+a large, high performance operating system [Feiertag71].
+Other work includes Hydra [Almes78],
+Spice [Thompson80],
+and a file system for a LISP environment [Symbolics81].
+A good introduction to the physical latencies of disks is
+described in [Pechura83].
+.ds RH Old file system
+.sp 2
+.ne 1i